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Riassunto "Introducing Translation Studies", Jeremy Munday, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Lingua Inglese

Università degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata (UNIROMA2)Lingua Inglese
Prof. Giulia Magazzù

Riassunto dei capitoli 1,2 e 11 del testo "Introducing Translation Studies, theories and applications" di Jeremy Munday.

Tipologia: Schemi e mappe concettuali

2020/2021

Caricato il 09/05/2023

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CHAPTER 1: main issues of translation studies:
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION:
The English term translation, first attested in around 1340 derives either from Old French translation
or more directly from the Latin translatio (‘transporting’), itself coming from the participle of the verb
transferre (‘to carry over’). In the field of languages, translation today has several meanings:
1. the general subject field or phenomenon (‘I studied translation at university’)
2. product – that is, the text that has been translated (‘they published the Arabic translation of
the report’)
3. the process of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating (‘translation service’).
The process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an
original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL)
into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL):
Source text (ST) ---> Target text (TT)
in source language (SL) in target language (TL)
However, internationalization and communication practices have meant that this traditional
conceptualization of translation needs to be broadened to include those contexts in which there is no
clearly defined source text. This may be because there are multilingual versions of the same text,
each of which is deemed to be equally valid.
The traditional ST-TT configuration is the most prototypical of ‘interlingual translation’, one of the three
categories of translation described by Roman Jakobson. Jakobson’s categories are as follows:
1. intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other
signs of the same language’
2. interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
some other language’
3. intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
signs of non-verbal sign systems’.
These definitions draw on semiotics, the general science of communication through signs and sign
systems. The use of the term semiotics is significant here because translation is not always limited to
verbal languages. Intersemiotic translation, for example, occurs when a written text is translated
into a different mode, such as music, film or painting.
Intralingual translation would occur when we produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a text in the
same language, say a children’s version of an encyclopedia. It also occurs when we rephrase an
expression in the same language.
It is interlingual translation, between two different verbal sign systems, that has been the traditional
focus of translation studies.
The question of what we mean by ‘translation’, and how it differs from ‘adaptation’, ‘version’,
‘transcreation’ is very common. Sandra Halverson claims that translation can be better considered as
aprototype classification, that is, that there are basic core features that we associate with a
prototypical translation, and other translational forms which lie on the periphery.
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CHAPTER 1: main issues of translation studies:

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION:

The English term translation , first attested in around 1340 derives either from Old French translation or more directly from the Latin translatio (‘transporting’), itself coming from the participle of the verb transferre (‘to carry over’). In the field of languages, translation today has several meanings:

  1. the general subject field or phenomenon (‘I studied translation at university’)
  2. product – that is, the text that has been translated (‘they published the Arabic translation of the report’)
  3. the process of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating (‘translation service’). The process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL): Source text (ST) ---> Target text (TT) in source language (SL) in target language (TL) However, internationalization and communication practices have meant that this traditional conceptualization of translation needs to be broadened to include those contexts in which there is no clearly defined source text. This may be because there are multilingual versions of the same text, each of which is deemed to be equally valid. The traditional ST-TT configuration is the most prototypical of ‘interlingual translation’, one of the three categories of translation described by Roman Jakobson. Jakobson’s categories are as follows:
  4. intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language’
  5. interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language’
  6. intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems’. These definitions draw on semiotics , the general science of communication through signs and sign systems. The use of the term semiotics is significant here because translation is not always limited to verbal languages. Intersemiotic translation , for example, occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode, such as music, film or painting. Intralingual translation would occur when we produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a text in the same language, say a children’s version of an encyclopedia. It also occurs when we rephrase an expression in the same language. It is interlingual translation , between two different verbal sign systems, that has been the traditional focus of translation studies. The question of what we mean by ‘translation’, and how it differs from ‘adaptation’, ‘version’, ‘transcreation’ is very common. Sandra Halverson claims that translation can be better considered as a prototype classification, that is, that there are basic core features that we associate with a prototypical translation, and other translational forms which lie on the periphery.

By contrast, Maria Tymoczko discusses the very different words and metaphors for ‘translation’ in other cultures, indicative of a conceptual orientation where the goal of close lexical fidelity to an original may not therefore be shared, certainly in the practice of translation of sacred and literary texts. 1.2 WHAT IS TRANSLATION STUDIES? Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in interhuman communication. In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally known as ‘translation studies’, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S. Holmes. In his key defining paper delivered in 1972, Holmes describes the then nascent discipline as being concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations’. There are four very visible ways in which translation studies have become more prominent. Unsurprisingly, these reflect a basic tension between the practical side of professional translating and the often more abstract research activity of the field. First, just as the demand for translation has soared, so has there been a vast expansion in specialized translating and interpreting programmes at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. These programmes are mainly oriented towards training future professional commercial translators and interpreters. Second, the past decades have also seen a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages. Third, as the number of publications has increased so has the demand for general and analytical instruments such as anthologies, databases, encyclopedias, handbooks and introductory texts. Their number is ever-growing. Fourth, international organizations have also prospered. The International Federation of Translators was established in 1953 by the Société française des traducteurs and its president Pierre-François Caillé. It brought together national associations of translators. 1.3. AN EARLY HISTORY OF THE DISCIPLINE: Writings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history. The practice of translation was crucial for the early dissemination of key cultural and religious texts and concepts. In the west, the different ways of translating were discussed by, among others, Cicero and Horace. In western Europe the translation of the Bible was to be the battleground of conflicting ideologies for well over a thousand years and especially during the Reformation in the sixteenth century. While the practice of translation is long established, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the latter part of the twentieth century. Before that, translation had often been relegated to an element of language learning. Grammatical rules were both practised and tested by the translation of a series of usually unconnected and artificially constructed sentences. Grammar-translation fell into increasing disrepute, particularly in many English-language countries, with the rise of alternative forms of language teaching such as the method direct and the communicative approach from the 1960s and 1970s. The communicative approach stressed students’ natural capacity to learn language and attempts to replicate ‘authentic’ language-learning conditions in the classroom. It often privileged spoken over written forms, at least initially, and

1.5. DEVELOPMENTS SINCE HOLMES:

The surge in translation studies since Holmes has seen different areas of the map come to the fore. Contrastive linguistics generally fell by the wayside, but has resurfaced thanks to the advances in machine translation and corpus-based studies. The linguistics-oriented ‘science’ of translation has continued strongly in Germany. Germany has seen the rise of theories centred around text types and text purpose. 1.6. THE VAN DOORSLAER “MAP”: In the new maps, a distinction is drawn between ‘translation’ and ‘translation studies’. ‘Translation’ looks at the act of translating and, in the new map, is subdivided into:

  • lingual mode (interlingual, intralingual);
  • media (printed, audiovisual, electronic);
  • mode (covert/overt translation, direct/indirect translation, mother tongue/ other tongue translation, pseudo-translation, retranslation, self-translation, sight translation, etc.);
  • field (political, journalistic, technical, literary, religious, scientific, commercial)
  • approaches (e.g. cultural approach, linguistic approach);
  • theories (e.g. general translation theory, polysystem theory);
  • research methods (e.g. descriptive, empirical);
  • applied translation studies (criticism, didactics, institutional environment). A strategy is the overall orientation of a translated text, while a procedure is a specific technique used at a given point in a text. 1.7. DISCIPLINE, INTERDISCIPLINE OR MULTIDISCIPLINE? A notable characteristic of recent research has been its interdisciplinarity. An interdiscipline therefore challenges the current conventional way of thinking by promoting and responding to new links between different types of knowledge and technologies. Some current projects are also multidisciplinary , involving the participation of researchers from various disciplines, including translation studies. It is important to point out that the relationship of translation studies to other disciplines is not fixed.

CHAPTER 2: translation theory before the twentieth century:

2.1. “WORD-FOR-WORD” OR “SENSE-FOR-SENSE”?

The distinction between ‘word-for-word’ (i.e. ‘literal’) and ‘sense-for-sense’ (i.e. ‘free’) translation goes back to Cicero and St Jerome. The Roman rhetorician and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero outlined his approach to translation in De optimo genere oratorum , introducing his own translation from the Greek of speeches of the fourth-century Attic orators Aeschines and Demosthenes: “And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms.” The ‘interpreter’ of the first line is often read by translation studies as being the literal (‘word-for-word’) translator, while the ‘orator’ tried to produce a speech that moved the listeners.

The disparagement of word-for-word translation came from others as well, such as the poet Horace , who, in a short but famous passage from his Ars Poetica, underlines the goal of producing an aesthetically pleasing and creative poetic text in the TL. This attitude had great influence on the succeeding centuries. Thus, St Jerome , the most famous of all western translators, cites the authority of Cicero’s approach to justify his own Latin revision and translation of the Christian Bible, later to become known as the Latin Vulgate. Jerome’s statement is now usually taken to refer to what came to be known as ‘literal’ (word-for-word) and ‘free’ (sense-for-sense) translation. Jerome rejected the word-for-word approach because, by following so closely the form of the ST, it produced an absurd translation, cloaking the sense of the original. The sense-for-sense approach, on the other hand, allowed the sense or content of the ST to be translated. 2.2.: EARLY CHINESE AND ARABIC DISCOURSE ON TRANSLATION: St Jerome’s statement is usually taken to be the clearest expression of the ‘literal’ and ‘free’ poles in translation. The same concerns have been represented in other rich and ancient translation traditions such as in China and the Arab world. For instance, Hung and Pollard used similar terms when describing the history of Chinese translation of Buddhist sutras from Sanskrit. The vocabulary of Hung and Pollard’s shows the influence of modern western translation terminology, the general thrust of the argument being similar to the Cicero/St Jerome poles. Some of the issues, such as transliteration, relate most clearly to the problem of translation of foreign elements and names into a non-phonetic language (Chinese). However, it should be stressed that Hung and Pollard later revised and extended their discussion, emphasizing the changing context in which these translations were made. For example, the third phase was marked by increased linguistic competence and theological expertise on the part of the monks and officials involved and by stricter regulation on participation in the translation forums. Over recent years, there has been increased interest from the west in Chinese and other writing on translation and this has highlighted some important theoretical points. With specific reference to sutra transmission, Eva Hung notes the problematization even of concepts such as ‘original text’ and ‘source language’, since these teachings were originally recited orally, leading to many variant STs, and there may have been ‘half a dozen or more’ Central Asian source languages involved before Sanskrit achieved its dominant position. In many cases the Sanskrit version has been lost but the Chinese has survived, which of course means that there is no longer any way of checking against any supposed ST. This word-for-word method proved to be unsuccessful and was later revised using the second, sense-for-sense method. The second method consisted of translating sense-for-sense, creating fluent target texts which conveyed the meaning of the original without distorting the target language. 2.3.: HUMANISM AND THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Within western society, issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years after St Jerome bound up with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts. Before the arrival of the printing press, texts were laboriously copied by hand, which led to numerous errors or variant readings.

  1. ‘metaphrase’ : ‘word by word and line by line’ translation, which corresponds to literal translation;
  2. ‘paraphrase’ : ‘translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense’; this involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation;
  3. ‘imitation’ : ‘forsaking’ both words and sense; this corresponds to Cowley’s very free translation and is more or less what today might be understood as adaptation. Dryden rejects imitation, where the translator uses the ST ‘as a pattern to write as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country’. This three-part, or ‘triadic’, model proposed by Dryden was to exert considerable influence on later writings on translation. In general, Dryden and others writing on translation at the time are very prescriptive, setting out what in their opinion has to be done in order for successful translation to take place. Other early writers on translation also began to state their principles in a similarly prescriptive fashion. One of the first had been Étienne Dolet. he set out five principles in order of importance as follows:
  4. The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author, although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.
  5. The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.
  6. The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.
  7. The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.
  8. The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness. In English, the first comprehensive and systematic study of translation is Alexander Fraser Tytler’s ‘Essay on the principles of translation’. And, where Dolet has five ‘principles’, Tytler has three general ‘laws’ or ‘rules’:
  9. The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.
  10. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.
  11. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition. 2.6: SCHLEIERMACHER AND THE VALORIZATION OF THE FOREIGN: Friedrich Schleiermacher’s hermeneutics expounded a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding. Schleiermacher first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text. These are:
  12. the ‘Dolmetscher’, who translates commercial texts;
  13. the ‘Übersetzer’, who works on scholarly and artistic texts. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to move the reader towards the writer. Schleiermacher’s method is to ‘give the reader, through the translation, the impression he would have received as a German reading the work in the original language.’ The translator must adopt an ‘alienating’, ‘foreignizing’ method of translation.

There are several consequences of this approach, including:

  1. If the translator is to seek to communicate the same impression which he or she received from the ST, this impression will also depend on the level of education and understanding among the TT readership, and this is likely to differ from the translator’s own understanding.
  2. A special language of translation may be necessary, for example compensating in one place with an imaginative word where elsewhere the translator has to make do with a hackneyed expression that cannot convey the impression of the foreign.

CHAPTER 11: new direction from the new media:

The emergence and proliferation of new technologies have transformed translation practice. Additionally, new technologies are exerting an impact on the theorization of translation. 11.1: AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION: Very dramatic developments in translation studies have occurred in the field of audiovisual translation, most notably subtitling. Initially audiovisual translation was more or less overlooked by translation theory. Early articles by Titford and Mayoral coined the term ‘constrained translation’ , focusing on the non-verbal elements that marked out audiovisual translation. Dirk Delabastita wrote an article (‘Translation and mass communication: Film and TV translation as evidence of cultural dynamics’) where talks about 4 different codes:

  1. the verbal (with various stylistic and dialectal features)
  2. the literary and theatrical (plot, dialogue, etc., appropriate to the genre)
  3. the proxemic and kinetic (relating to a wide range of non-verbal behaviour)
  4. the cinematic (camera techniques, film genres and so on) Delabastita constantly compares film translation to other forms of translation, such as theatrical performance. In his view, the major difference is that, whereas drama is constituted slightly differently on each occasion it is performed, film is recorded and ‘is perfectly producible in material terms’. There are also very particular constraints that normally govern the subtitling of film, namely the co-existence of the sound channel and the vision channel, which restrict the procedures open to the translator. Delabastita’s article attempts to deal with both subtitling and dubbing but is ‘only a first step towards the development of a competence model’ for this kind of translation. Delabastita’s article in many ways marked much early research into this medium. Certainly, the discussion of the name for the field and its relation to the umbrella term ‘translation studies’ has received much attention. Rather than ‘film translation’, Luyken speaks of ‘ audiovisual language transfer’. Meanwhile, Gottlieb describes interlingual subtitling as a form of ‘ diagonal translation ’. Gambier in his introduction to a special issue of The Translator devoted to the subject, discusses the competing terms ‘audiovisual translation’, ‘screen translation’ and ‘multimedia translation’. Gambier himself proposed the term ‘transadaptation’ , concluding that ‘[the term] audiovisual translation (AVT) was fast becoming the standard referent’.
  1. The linguistic code: here Chaume makes the crucial point that problems such as wordplay, co-presence of multiple languages,culture-specific elements, etc. ‘are shared by other translation types (e.g. legal, scientific, technical, etc.) and should not be considered problems specific to audiovisual translation’. For him, the features of the linguistic code in audiovisual texts are that they are most often scripted but ‘written to be spoken as if not written’, which poses considerable demands on the translator to conform to a similar register.
  2. The paralinguistic code: the preparation of dubbing scripts would involve the addition of symbols to indicate laughter, pauses, and so on, while in subtitling graphical signs (upper case, exclamation marks, suspension marks, etc.) indicate voice level, tone and pauses.
  3. The musical and special effects code: the representation and adaptation of song lyrics and their function.
  4. The sound arrangement code: There are differences depending on whether the speaker is on or off screen. This will necessitate orthographic variation in subtitling (an off-screen character’s words may be indicated in italics) and will affect both the translation procedure and sound quality in dubbing (an on-screen speaker’s words will need to be lip-synchronized) The other six codes relate to the visual channel:
  5. The iconographic code: iconographic symbols unlikely to be recognized by the TT viewer may need verbal explanation if it is important for the understanding of the text. Coherence with the image needs to be maintained. Chaume makes the point that audiovisual translation is distinct since the presence of the image on screen restricts the range of free translation that would be open to written translation.
  6. Photographic codes: examples of the problems which arise are changes in lighting which necessitate a change of colour for subtitles and also the use of a culture-specific visual or colour feature which may confuse or be misunderstood by the TT audience. So, while in Asia white is often associated with death, in the west it is more commonly the colour black. On the other hand, a red carnation may be the symbol of love.
  7. The planning code: relates to close-ups that require lip synchronization in dubbing and also the translation of important information on features that are not spoken (on posters, etc.).
  8. The mobility code: concerns the positioning of the characters in a dubbed scene and the need to coordinate movement and words (e.g. a shake of the head and a negative phrase in most cultures).
  9. Graphic codes: the representation of intertitles, titles, text and subtitles that appear on screen in the ST. This is a particular problem for dubbing.
  10. Syntactic codes: involve editing principles, such as the checking of the association of a verbal textual element to the image and other semiotic forms and also the start and end of sequences. Chaume’s codes are useful in drawing attention to the non-linguistic and particularly to the visual. Only one of the ten codes is linguistic, a huge departure from the norm in most translation studies work. The main focus is applied; that is, on a model that has pedagogical applications, for teaching the techniques to trainee subtitlers. - SUBTITLES AS “VULNERABLE TRANSLATION”: The co-existence of ST soundtrack and TT subtitles creates tension, which is described by the concept of ‘vulnerable translation’: a viewer with some understanding of the ST will have an expectation of the subtitles which, when disappointed (e.g. if there is an omission, or reduction), may cast doubt on the quality of those titles. This vulnerability is less often present in other forms of translation and represents an additional pressure for the subtitler.

- FANSUB AND VIDEO GAMES:

With the rapid development of technology new forms of translation are being created, two of which are fansubs and video games. Fansubs is the practice of amateur subtitling and distribution of films, TV series and other film extracts online. It was originally used for the translation of mainly Japanese manga and animé cartoons. The practice of amateur translation is not confined to subbing. Video game translation is a blend of audiovisual translation and software localization. Mangiron and O’Hagan call this type of activity ‘game localization’ since the games may be subtitled or dubbed or both. The important defining feature is the ‘creativity and originality’ that is demanded of the translator in order to ensure that the game is entertaining. Such creativity includes the renaming of elements and characters, using neologisms, and the deliberate choice of non-standard dialects. Bernal Merino discusses the term transcreation used by a new wave of companies seeking to distance themselves from traditional translation firms’. Transcreation is contrasted to other terms such as ‘domestication’, ‘localisation’ and ‘skopos’. So, while ‘transcreation’ is used to stress the creative and transformative nature of the process, ‘the skopos of game localisation is to produce a target version that keeps the “look and feel” of the original, yet passing itself off as the original’. Here, the creativity behind the new term ‘transcreation’ is combined with the description ‘look and feel’, which comes straight from the discourse of localization and translation. 11.2: LOCALIZATION, GLOBALIZATION AND COLLABORATIVE TRANSLATION: In the digital age, translation has become big business and in industry the term is often subsumed into the acronym GILT.

  • GLOBALIZATION : in this context normally means the organization of business processes to support internationalization and localization;
  • INTERNATIONALIZATION : refers to the development stages of a digital product to ensure that it will function internationally;
  • LOCALIZATION : refers to the adaptation of the product to the target locale, ‘the combination of a sociocultural region and a language in industrial setting’. Localization may involve the substitution of inappropriate cultural symbols and the translation of text, including the need to fit specific space constraints on the screen/page, etc.
  • The difference between LOCALIZATION and TRANSLATION is blurred, but generally localization is seen by industry as a superordinate term that encompasses translation. ‘Localization’ involves taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale (country/region and language) where it will be used and sold’. We can identify 2 concepts of both COMPUTER-ASSISTED TRANSLATION (CAT) and MACHINE TRANSLATION (MT) tools.
  • Computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools used by professional translators encompass tools for the alignment of ST–TT pairs, concordancing of search terms and term extraction. In particular, translation memory tools allow the creation of databases of previous translations.
  • Machine translation (MT) tools generate automatic translations. These are largely used for assimilation, that is for comprehension. MT is increasingly used for dissemination , for example by the European Commission in order to provide a draft first translation of documents which are then post-edited by a human translator or editor. A translation theory perspective is applied to internationalization , which leads to the adaptation of accepted communication models. Thus, the production of multiple TL versions (e.g. software localized
  1. MONOLINGUAL CORPORA : collections of texts in the same language. These may be analysed to identify characteristics of genre or author style or for the use of specific word-forms.
  2. COMPARABLE BILINGUAL CORPORA : are normally specialized collections of similar STs in the two languages and which can be ‘mined’ for terminology and other equivalences.
  3. PARALLEL CORPORA , of ST–TT pairs, which, when aligned (sentence by sentence or paragraph by paragraph), can allow the strategies employed by the translator(s) to be investigated. There is continued interest in the ways in which the corpora approach can assist translation theory. The volume Corpus-Based Translation Studies: Research and Applications , for instance, examines a range of phenomena, including translation units, textual norms, terminographic practice and explicitation.