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Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics

Volume 2

Editors: Bruno Siciliano · Oussama Khatib · Frans Groen

Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics

Edited by B. Siciliano, O. Khatib, and F. Groen

Vol. 21: Ang Jr., M.H.; Khatib, 0. (Eds.) Experimental Robotics IX { The 9th International Symposium on Experimental Robotics 624 p. 2006 [3-540-28816-3] Vol. 20: Xu, Y.; Ou, Y. Control of Single Wheel Robots 188 p. 2005 [3-540-28184-3] Vol. 19: Lefebvre, T.; Bruyninckx, H.; De Schutter, J. Nonlinear Kalman Filtering for Force-Controlled Robot Tasks 280 p. 2005 [3-540-28023-5] Vol. 18: Barbagli, F.; Prattichizzo, D.; Salisbury, K. (Eds.) Multi-point Interaction with Real and Virtual Objects 281 p. 2005 [3-540-26036-6] Vol. 17: Erdmann, M.; Hsu, D.; Overmars, M.; van der Stappen, F.A (Eds.) Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics VI 472 p. 2005 [3-540-25728-4] Vol. 16: Cuesta, F.; Ollero, A. Intelligent Mobile Robot Navigation 224 p. 2005 [3-540-23956-1] Vol. 15: Dario, P.; Chatila R. (Eds.) Robotics Research { The Eleventh International Symposium 595 p. 2005 [3-540-23214-1] Vol. 14: Prassler, E.; Lawitzky, G.; Stopp, A.; Grunwald, G.; Hagele, M.; Dillmann, R.; Iossiˇdis. I. (Eds.) Advances in Human-Robot Interaction 414 p. 2005 [3-540-23211-7] Vol. 13: Chung, W. Nonholonomic Manipulators 115 p. 2004 [3-540-22108-5] Vol. 12: Iagnemma K.; Dubowsky, S. Mobile Robots in Rough Terrain { Estimation, Motion Planning, and Control with Application to Planetary Rovers 123 p. 2004 [3-540-21968-4] Vol. 11: Kim, J.-H.; Kim, D.-H.; Kim, Y.-J.; Seow, K.-T. Soccer Robotics 353 p. 2004 [3-540-21859-9]

Vol. 10: Siciliano, B.; De Luca, A.; Melchiorri, C.; Casalino, G. (Eds.) Advances in Control of Articulated and Mobile Robots 259 p. 2004 [3-540-20783-X] Vol. 9: Yamane, K. Simulating and Generating Motions of Human Figures 176 p. 2004 [3-540-20317-6] Vol. 8: Baeten, J.; De Schutter, J. Integrated Visual Servoing and Force Control 198 p. 2004 [3-540-40475-9] Vol. 7: Boissonnat, J.-D.; Burdick, J.; Goldberg, K.; Hutchinson, S. (Eds.) Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics V 577 p. 2004 [3-540-40476-7] Vol. 6: Jarvis, R.A.; Zelinsky, A. (Eds.) Robotics Research { The Tenth International Symposium 580 p. 2003 [3-540-00550-1] Vol. 5: Siciliano, B.; Dario, P. (Eds.) Experimental Robotics VIII 685 p. 2003 [3-540-00305-3] Vol. 4: Bicchi, A.; Christensen, H.I.; Prattichizzo, D. (Eds.) Control Problems in Robotics 296 p. 2003 [3-540-00251-0] Vol. 3: Natale, C. Interaction Control of Robot Manipulators { Six-degrees-of-freedom Tasks 120 p. 2003 [3-540-00159-X] Vol. 2: Antonelli, G. Underwater Robots { Motion and Force Control of Vehicle-Manipulator Systems 209 p. 2003 [3-540-00054-2] Vol. 1: Caccavale, F.; Villani, L. (Eds.) Fault Diagnosis and Fault Tolerance for Mechatronic Systems { Recent Advances 191 p. 2002 [3-540-44159-X]

Professor Bruno Siciliano , Dipartimento di Informatica e Sistemistica, Universit`a degli Studi di Napoli Fede- rico II, Via Claudio 21, 80125 Napoli, Italy, email: [email protected] Professor Oussama Khatib , Robotics Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-9010, USA, email: [email protected] Professor Frans Groen , Department of Computer Science, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Kruislaan 403, 1098 SJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands, email: [email protected]

Author

Dr. Gianluca Antonelli Universit`a degli Studi di Cassino Dipartimento di Automazione, Elettromagnetismo, Ingegneria dell’Informazione e Matematica Industriale Via di Biasio 43 03043 Cassino Italy

ISSN print edition: 1610- ISSN electronic edition: 1610-742X

ISBN-10 3-540-31752-X Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-3-540-31752-4 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006920068

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable to prosecution under German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Digital data supplied by author. Data-conversion and production: PTP-Berlin Protago-TEX-Production GmbH, Germany Cover-Design: design & production GmbH, Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper 89/3141/Yu - 5 4 3 2 1 0

Editorial Advisory Board

EUROPE Herman Bruyninckx, KU Leuven, Belgium Raja Chatila, LAAS, France Henrik Christensen, KTH, Sweden Paolo Dario, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna Pisa, Italy R¨udiger Dillmann, Universit¨at Karlsruhe, Germany AMERICA Ken Goldberg, UC Berkeley, USA John Hollerbach, University of Utah, USA Lydia Kavraki, Rice University, USA Tim Salcudean, University of British Columbia, Canada Sebastian Thrun, Stanford University, USA ASIA/OCEANIA Peter Corke, CSIRO, Australia Makoto Kaneko, Hiroshima University, Japan Sukhan Lee, Sungkyunkwan University, Korea Yangsheng Xu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, PRC Shin’ichi Yuta, Tsukuba University, Japan

STAR (Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics) has been promoted under the auspices of EURON (European Robotics Research Network)

ROBOTICSResearch Network

European

EURON

_ * _^ __^ __^ _ _^ _ _^ _ * _

E la locomotiva sembrava fosse un mostro strano

che l’uomo dominava con il pensiero e con la mano...

Francesco Guccini, La locomotiva, 1972.

Foreword

At the dawn of the new millennium, robotics is undergoing a major trans- formation in scope and dimension. From a largely dominant industrial focus, robotics is rapidly expanding into the challenges of unstructured environ- ments. Interacting with, assisting, serving, and exploring with humans, the emerging robots will increasingly touch people and their lives. The goal of the new series of Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics (STAR) is to bring, in a timely fashion, the latest advances and develop- ments in robotics on the basis of their significance and quality. It is our hope that the wider dissemination of research developments will stimulate more exchanges and collaborations among the research community and contribute to further advancement of this rapidly growing field. The volume by Gianluca Antonelli is the second edition of a successful monograph, which was one of the first volumes to be published in the series. Being focused on an important class of robotic systems, namely underwa- ter vehicle-manipulator systems, this volume improves the previous material while expanding the state-of-the-art in the field. New features deal with fault- tolerant control and coordinated control of autonomous underwater vehicles. A well-balanced blend of theoretical and experimental results, this volume represents a fine confirmation in our STAR series!

Naples, Italy Bruno Siciliano, October 2005 STAR Editor

About the Author

Gianluca Antonelli was born in Roma, Italy, on December 19, 1970. He received the “Laurea” degree in Electronic Engineering and the “Research Doctorate” degree in Electronic Engineering and Computer Science from the Universita degli Studi di Napoli Federico II in 1995 and 2000, respectively. From January 2000 he is with the Universita degli Studi di Cassino where he currently is an Associate Professor. He has published more than 60 journals and conference papers; he was awarded with the “EURON Georges Giralt PhD Award”, First Edition for the thesis published in the years 1999-2000. From September, 2005 he is an Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Robotics. His research interests include simulation and control of underwater robotic systems, force/motion control of robot manipulators, path planning and obstacle avoidance for autonomous vehicles, identification, multi-robot systems.

Prof. Gianluca Antonelli Dipartimento di Automazione, Elettromagnetismo, Ingegneria dell’Informazione e Matematica Industriale Universit`a degli Studi di Cassino via G. Di Biasio 43, 03043, Cassino (FR), Italy [email protected] http://webuser.unicas.it/antonelli

Preface to the Second Edition

The purpose of this Second Edition is to add material not covered in the First Edition as well as streamline and improve the previous material. The organization of the book has been substantially modified, an intro- ductory Chapter containing the state of the art has been considered; the modeling Chapter is substantially unmodified. In Chapter 3 the problem of controlling a 6-Degrees-Of-Freedoms (DOFs) Autonomous Underwater Ve- hicle (AUV) is investigated. Chapter 4 is a new Chapter devoted at a survey of fault detection/tolerant strategies for ROVs/AUVs, it is mainly based on the Chapter published in [10]. The following Chapter (Chapter 5) re- ports experimental results obtained with the vehicle ODIN. The following 3 Chapters, from Chapter 6 to Chapter 8 are devoted at presenting kinematic, dynamic and interaction control strategies for Underwater Vehicle Manipu- lator Systems (UVMSs); new material has been added thanks also to several colleagues who provided me with valuable material, I warmly thank all of them. The content of Chapter 9 is new in this Second Edition and reports preliminary results on the emerging topic of coordinated control of platoon of AUVs. Finally, the bibliography has been updated. The reader might be interested in knowing what she/he will not find in this book. Since the core of the book is the coordinated control of mani- pulators mounted on underwater vehicles, control of non-holonomic vehicles is not dealt with; this is an important topic also in view of the large num- ber of existing torpedo-like vehicles. Another important aspect concerns the sensorial apparatus, both from the technological point of view and from the algorithmic aspect; most of the AUVs are equipped with redundant senso- rial systems required both for localization/navigation purposes and for fault detection/tolerant capabilities. Actuation is mainly obtained by means of thrusters; those are still object of research for the modeling characteristics and might be the object of improvement in terms of dynamic response.

Cassino, Italy Gianluca Antonelli January 2006

XVIII Preface to the First Edition

signed at the Autonomous Systems Laboratory of the University of Hawaii (Honolulu, HI, USA), OTTER from the Monterey Bay Acquarium and St- anford University (CA, USA), Phoenix and ARIES belonging to the Na- val Postgraduate School (Monterey, CA, USA), Twin Burgers developed at the University of Tokyo (Tokyo, Japan), Theseus belonging to ISE Rese- arch Ltd (Canada). Reference [92] shows the control architecture of VOR- TEX , a vehicle developed by Inria and Ifremer (France), and OTTER. Focusing on the low level motion control of AUVs, most of the proposed control schemes take into account the uncertainty in the model by resor- ting to an adaptive strategy [83, 91, 126, 130, 138, 314] or a robust ap- proach [90, 93, 145, 201, 259, 310, 311]. In [145] an estimation of the dynamic parameters of the vehicle NPS AUV Phoenix is also provided. An overview of control techniques for AUVs is reported in [127]. As a curiosity, in the Figure below there is a draw of one of the first manned underwater vehicles. It was found in the Codice Atlantico (Codex Atlanticus), written by Leonardo Da Vinci between 1480 and 1518, together with the development of some diver’s devices. Legends say that Leonardo worked on the idea of an underwater military machine that he further dest- royed by himself the results judged too dangerous. Maybe the first idea of an underwater machine is from Aristotle; following the legend he built a ma- chine: skaphe andros (boat-man) that allowed Alexander the Great to stay in deep for at least half a day during the war of Tiro in 325 b. C. This is unrealistic, of course, also considering that the Archimedes’s law was still to become a reality (around 250 b. C.).

Draw of the manned underwater vehicle developed by Leonardo Da Vinci

The current technology in control of underwater manipulation is limited to the use of a master/slave approach in which a skilled operator has to move a master manipulator that works as joystick for the slave manipulator that is performing the task [56, 287]. The limitations of such a technique are evident: the operator must be well trained, underwater communication is hard and a significant delay in the control is experienced. Moreover, if the task has to be performed in deep waters, a manned underwater vehicle close to the unmanned vehicle with the manipulator need to be considered

Preface to the First Edition XIX

to overcome the communication problems thus leading to enormous cost in- creasing. Few research centers are equipped with an autonomous Underwater Vehicle-Manipulator System. Among the others:

• ODIN and OTTER can be provided with a one/two link manipulator to study the interaction of the manipulator and the vehicle in order to execute automatic retrieval tasks [297];
• on VORTEX a 7-link manipulator (PA10 ) can be mounted with a large inertia with respect to the vehicle that implies a strong interaction between them;
• SAUVIM , a semi-autonomous vehicle with an Ansaldo 7-link manipulator is under development at the Autonomous Systems Laboratory of the Uni- versity of Hawaii; this vehicle, in the final version, will be able to operate at the depth of 4000 m.
• AMADEUS , an acronym for Advanced MAnipulation for DEep Under- water Sampling, funded by the European Commission, that involved the Heriot-Watt University (UK), the Universit`a di Genova (Italy), CNR Isti- tuto Automazione Navale, (Italy), the Universitat de Barcelona (Spain), the Institute of Marine Biology of Crete (Greece). The project focused on the co-ordinated control of two tele-operated underwater Ansaldo 7-link manipulators and the development of an underwater hand equipped with a slip sensor.

Focusing on the motion control of UVMSs, [56, 159] present a telemani- pulated arm; in [192] an intelligent underwater manipulator prototype is experimentally validated; [67, 68, 69] present some simulation results on a Composite Dynamics approach for VORTEX/PA10 ; [106] evaluates the dynamic coupling for a specific UVMS; adaptive approaches are presented in [124, 197, 198]. Reference [206] reports some interesting experiments of coordinated control. Very few papers investigated the redundancy resolution of UVMSs by applying inverse kinematics algorithm with different secondary tasks [20, 24, 25, 249, 250]. This book deals with the main control aspects in underwater manipula- tion tasks and dynamic control of AUVs. First, the mathematical model is discussed; the aspects with significant impact on the control strategy will be remarked. In Chap. 6, kinematic control for underwater manipulation is presented. Kinematic control plays a significant role in unstructured robo- tics where off-line trajectory planning is not a reliable approach; moreover, the vehicle-manipulator system is often kinematically redundant with respect to the most common tasks and redundancy resolution algorithms can then be applied to exploit such characteristic. Dynamic control is then discussed in Chap. 7; several motion control schemes are analyzed and presented in this book. Some experimental results with the autonomous vehicle ODIN (without manipulator) are presented, moreover some theoretical results on adaptive control of AUVs are discussed. In Chap. 8, the interaction with the environment is detailed. Such kind of operation is critical in underwater

Notation

In this Chapter, the main acronyms and the notation that will be used in the work are listed.

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle CLIK Closed Loop Inverse Kinematics DOF Degree Of Freedom EKF Extended Kalman Filter FD Fault Detection FIS Fuzzy Inference System FTC Fault Tolerant Controller KF Kalman Filter ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle TCM Thruster Control Matrix UUV Unmanned Underwater Vehicle UVMS Underwater Vehicle-Manipulator System Σi, O − xyz inertial frame (see Figure 2.1) Σb, Ob − xbybzb body(vehicle)-fixed frame (see Figure 2.1) IR, IN Real, Natural numbers η 1 = [ x y z ]T^ ∈ IR^3 body(vehicle) position coordinates in the iner- tial frame (see Figure 2.1) η 2 = [ φ θ ψ ]T^ ∈ IR^3 body(vehicle) Euler-angle coordinates in the inertial frame (see Figure 2.1) Q = {ε ∈ IR^3 , η ∈ IR} quaternion expressing the body(vehicle) ori- entation with respect to the inertial frame η = [ ηT 1 ηT 2 ]T^ ∈ IR^6 body(vehicle) position/orientation

XXII Notation

ηq = [ ηT 1 εT^ η ]T^ ∈ IR^7 body(vehicle) position/orientation with the orientation expressed by quaternions ν 1 = [ u v w ]T^ ∈ IR^3 vector representing the linear velocity of the origin of the body(vehicle)-fixed frame with respect to the origin of the inertial frame ex- pressed in the body(vehicle)-fixed frame (see Figure 2.1) ν 2 = [ p q r ]T^ ∈ IR^3 vector representing the angular velocity of the body(vehicle)-fixed frame with respect to the inertial frame expressed in the body(vehicle)- fixed frame (see Figure 2.1)

ν = [ νT 1 νT 2 ]T^ ∈ IR^6 vector representing the linear/angular velo- city in the body(vehicle)-fixed frame Rβα ∈ IR^3 ×^3 rotation matrix expressing the transforma- tion from frame α to frame β Jk,o(η 2 ) ∈ IR^3 ×^3 Jacobian matrix defined in (2.2) Jk,oq (Q) ∈ IR^4 ×^3 Jacobian matrix defined in (2.10) Je(η 2 ) ∈ IR^6 ×^6 Jacobian matrix defined in (2.19) Je,q (Q) ∈ IR^7 ×^6 Jacobian matrix defined in (2.23) τ 1 = [ X Y Z ]T^ ∈ IR^3 vector representing the resultant forces acting on the rigid body(vehicle) expressed in the body(vehicle)-fixed frame τ 2 = [ K M N ]T^ ∈ IR^3 vector representing the resultant moment ac- ting on the rigid body(vehicle) expressed in the body(vehicle)-fixed frame to the pole Ob

τ (^) v = [ τ T 1 τ T 2 ]T^ ∈ IR^6 generalized forces: forces and moments acting on the vehicle τ .v ∈ IR^6 generalized forces in the earth-fixed-frame- based model defined in (2.53) n degrees of freedom of the manipulator q ∈ IRn^ joint positions τ (^) q ∈ IRn^ joint torques

τ = [ τ T v τ T q ]T^ ∈ IR6+n^ generalized forces: vehicle forces and moments and joint torques u ∈ IRp^ control inputs, τ = Bu (see (2.72))

XXIV Notation

x ˜ error variable defined as ˜x = xd − x

xT

XT

' transpose of the vector x (matrix X)

xi i th element of the vector x Xi,j element at row i, column j of the matrix X

X†^ Moore-Penrose inversion (pseudoinversion) of matrix X If X is low rectangular it is

X†^ = XT^

XXT

'− 1

If X is high rectangular it is

X†^ =

XTX

'− 1 XT

Ir (r × r) identity matrix Or 1 ×r 2 (r 1 × r 2 ) null matrix S(·) ∈ IR^3 ×^3 matrix performing the cross product between two (3 × 1) vectors defined in (2.6) ρ^3 water density μ fluid dynamic viscosity Rn Reynolds number gI^ gravity acceleration expressed in the inertial frame

Contents

• 1. Introduction
  • 1.1 Underwater Vehicles
  • 1.2 Sensorial Systems
  • 1.3 Actuation
  • 1.4 Localization
  • 1.5 AUVs’ Control
    • 1.5.1 Fault Detection/Tolerance for UUVs
  • 1.6 UVMS’ Coordinated Control
  • 1.7 Future Perspectives
• 1. Modelling of Underwater Robots
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Rigid Body’s Kinematics
    • 2.2.1 Attitude Representation by Euler Angles
    • 2.2.2 Attitude Representation by Quaternion
    • 2.2.3 Attitude Error Representation
    • 2.2.4 6-DOFs Kinematics
  • 2.3 Rigid Body’s Dynamics
    • 2.3.1 Rigid Body’s Dynamics in Matrix Form
  • 2.4 Hydrodynamic Effects
    • 2.4.1 Added Mass and Inertia
    • 2.4.2 Damping Effects
    • 2.4.3 Current Effects
  • 2.5 Gravity and Buoyancy
  • 2.6 Thrusters’ Dynamics
  • 2.7 Underwater Vehicles’ Dynamics in Matrix Form
    • 2.7.1 Linearity in the Parameters
  • 2.8 Kinematics of Manipulators with Mobile Base
  • 2.9 Dynamics of Underwater Vehicle-Manipulator Systems
    • 2.9.1 Linearity in the Parameters
  • 2.10 Contact with the Environment
  • 2.11 Identification