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D265 Critical Thinking Study Guide.
The Fallacy of Equivocation - Answers โ
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Using the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings.
"Children are a headache. Aspirin will make headaches go away. Therefore, aspirin will make children go away." - Answers โ
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The Fallacy of Equivocation
The Slippery Slope Fallacy - Answers โ
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This fallacy is committed when one event is said to lead to some other event via a chain of intermediary events.
The Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy - Answers โ
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When someone cherry-picks data to suit which conclusion they'd like to prove. They already know the conclusion they want before researching.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc/Post Hoc Fallacy - Answers โ
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Occurs when someone mistakes correlation for causation. Just because something regularly follows another thing, doesn't mean that it is caused by that other thing. As the saying goes, correlation does not imply causation
Nowhere is this fallacy more in evidence than in our evaluation of the performance of presidents of the United States. Everything that happens during or immediately after their administrations tends to be pinned on them. - Answers โ
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Post Hoc Fallacy
The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization - Answers โ
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When one jumps to a conclusion about a group of people, things, or events, but does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small a sample.
Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit? - Answers โ
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Post Hoc Fallacy
The Fallacy of "Burden Shifting" - Answers โ
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When one decides that someone else must prove them wrong when they are the one with the burden of proof, as in they should prove themselves right.
The False Dilemma Fallacy - Answers โ
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When someone assumes that only two options are available for consideration when there are actually more.
Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this:
Either p is true or q is true.
Q is not true.
Therefore, p is true.
Critical Thinking - Answers โ
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The ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning/to be critical of your own reasoning.
Propositions - Answers โ
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The fundamental building blocks of arguments. They are a statement that can be true or false.
Simple propositions - Answers โ
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They have no internal logic structure, they are simply true or false based on how the world is.
Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens. - Answers โ
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Simple proposition
Complex propositions - Answers โ
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They have internal logic structure, and whether they are true or false depends on if their parts are true or false.
If freedom should be the highest value for its citizens, then we should promote it in our laws and policies. - Answers โ
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Complex proposition
Argument - Answers โ
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Contains at least two statements or propositions: a conclusion and one or more premises that lend support to the conclusion.
Premise - Answers โ
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A proposition that supports the conclusion.
Conclusion Indicators - Answers โ
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Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result.
Strength - Answers โ
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The premises give probable support for the conclusion.
Cogent - Answers โ
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The premises give probable support towards the conclusion when true (Strength), and all premises are true
Fallacy - Answers โ
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A defect in reasoning
Formal Fallacy - Answers โ
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A defect in the structure of an argument
Informal Fallacy - Answers โ
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A defect in the content of an argument
Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) basic structure - Answers โ
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P1. If X, then Y
P2. X
C: Therefore, Y
No Formal Fallacy
P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy
P2. I am in Rome.
C: Therefore, I am in Italy - Answers โ
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Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)
Affirming the Consequent basic structure - Answers โ
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P1. If X, then Y
P2. Y
C: Therefore, X
Commits Formal Fallacy
P1. If I am in Rome, then I'm in Italy.
P2. I am in Italy.
C: Therefore, I am in Rome - Answers โ
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Affirming the Consequent
Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) basic structure - Answers โ
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P1. If X, then Y
P2. Not Y
C: Therefore, not X
No Formal Fallacy
P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy
P2. I am not in Italy
C: Therefore, I am not in Rome - Answers โ
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Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)
Denying the Antecedent basic structure - Answers โ
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P1. If X, then Y
P2. Not X
C: Therefore, not Y
Commits Formal Fallacy
P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy
P2. I am not in Rome
C: Therefore, I am not in Italy - Answers โ
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Denying the Antecedent
Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning - Answers โ
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An argument where the premise restates the conclusion instead of supporting it. Arguing in a circle.
P1. The Earth is ball-shaped
C: Therefore, the Earth is a sphere - Answers โ
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Begging the Question (Informal Fallacy)
The Fallacy Fallacy - Answers โ
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Occurs when the fact that a fallacy has been committed is used to justify rejecting someone's conclusion.
The Availability Heuristic - Answers โ
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When one makes a judgment regarding a new situation using only information that is readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation.
Algorithm Bubble - Answers โ
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The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on.
A true random sample - Answers โ
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The way individuals were put into the sample was done using random methods that were not biased in favor of any particular subgroup.
A true representative sample - Answers โ
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Individuals in the sample are varied enough to give a good idea of all beliefs and ideas.
Statistics can be __________ very easily. - Answers โ
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manipulated
Selection bias - Answers โ
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This bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population.
A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast. Which bias does this conclusion illustrate? - Answers โ
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Selection bias
A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views. Which bias does this reasoning reflect? - Answers โ
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Representative Bias
When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which bias does this best represent? - Answers โ
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Availability Bias
What kind of actions can strong critical thinkers take to minimize bias in their thinking? - Answers โ
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Broaden sources of information and slow their thought processes.
An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted. Which argumentation bias does this passage illustrate? - Answers โ
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Confirmation Bias
System 1 thinking: - Answers โ
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quick, automatic, and emotional
System 2 thinking: - Answers โ
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deliberate, effortful, and calculating
The Ad Hominem Fallacy - Answers โ
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When someone attacks the arguer instead of the argument.
The Genetic Fallacy - Answers โ
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When someone critiques the origin of a claim rather than the claim or argument itself.
The Straw Figure/Straw man Fallacy - Answers โ
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When someone willfully or mistakenly misinterprets someone else's argument or position. They often interpret their opponents position to make it indefensible.
A Red Herring - Answers โ
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A distraction. When someone intentionally or unintentionally changes the subject entirely when an arguer doesn't want to answer a question. This distraction is not used as an answer, but just as a different subject entirely.
An Irrelevant Appeal - Answers โ
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Any kind of appeal to a factor, consideration, or reason that isn't relevant to the argument at hand. It is used as a reason/answer to the question rather than a distraction.
Appeal to Authority Fallacy - Answers โ
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When we trust an authority on one subject to speak on a different subject they don't have expertise in.
Appeal to Force Fallacy - Answers โ
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When a threat is used as a justification for the claim in an argument.
"If you don't believe this, then I'm going to hurt you" - Answers โ
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Appeal to Force Fallacy
