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UNIT 1 DATA ANALYSIS AND
RESEARCH REPORT
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Data Analysis and Interpretation
1.2.1 Definition 1.2.2 Types of Data Analysis 1.2.3 Steps in Descriptive Analysis 1.2.4 Analysis of Data
Application of Computer for Data Analysis
1.3.1 Anatomy of Computer 1.3.2 Basic Functions 1.3.3 Advantages of a Computer
Writing a Research Report
1.4.1 Purpose 1.4.2 Types of Research Reports 1.4.3 Content 1.4.4 Style of Writing: Language, Bibliography, References, Quotations 1.4.5 Sample Research Report
TerminaVSelf Assessment Exercises
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
defne analysis and interprekon;
list the descriptive measure used for the analysis;
describe the steps of descriptive analysis;
interpret the findings in selected examples;
list inferential techniques used for studying relationship and difference of
mean;
explain the basic principles of hypothesis testing;
define the term generalization;
explain how generalization are made;
state the purpose of writing research report;
identify the types of research report;
describe the content of research report; and
6 explain the style of writing' report.
1 1 INTRODUCTION
In Block 3 you have read about methods of data collection. In this unit you
will learn what to do with the data. This is the most interesting part of the
research study. Let us review the characteristics of research tool.
" Itr 11n;rljsis and
L~c!rnductiol~to Statistics
You have read in Block 3 that an ideal measuring instrument must be accurate and valid. If a test is valid, it will measure what the researcher wants to measure. Most commonly the type of validity used is content validity. Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of a measuring tool and is measured by reliability coefficient. Sensitivity, objectivity, practicability are some of the other criteria of a measuring tool.
Questionnaire can be self-administered, where the tool is administered to a group of respondents, who complete answering the questionnaire at the same time. It can also be mailed, where the respondent completes the questionnaire and mails it back to the researcher.
An observation checklist or a schedule is a structured recording device that allows easy recording during observation. The checklist is required to be constructed carefully, where the behaviours are listed, a system of coding is devised and method of recording is explained. Usually the check marks are placed in the appropriate columns against the statement of behaviour.
1.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The data collected during research project need to be processed and analysed in some systematic fashion so that trends and patterns of relationship can be detected. Data analysis and interpretation enables the researcher to reduce, summarize, organize, evaluate, interpret and communicate numeric information in the descriptive form. The data analysis is planned while developing the research proposal which provides the researcher opportunity to:
For see how s h e is going to examine the data, Summarize the finding meaningfully, and Draw conclusions about the findings.
1.2.1 Definitions
Data Analysis The word analysis means the categorizing, ordering and summarizing the data statistically to obtain answers to research questions. In a way, analysis of data consist of putting all the factual information collected into an order and summary according to the variable studied, objectives drawn and the hypothesis stated.
The tern 'anaiysis' isgsingubr and 'analyses' is plural grammiftieaIly.
Interpretation Interpretation means that you: study the results of the analysis, make inferences about its occurrences of relations, and draw conclusions about these relations. Interpretation becomes easier, if you put the data in to forms that are understandable. Example 1 Item No. 1 please check your age
i> 18-25 years ii) 26-33 years
Data Analysis and Inferential Introduction to Statistics (^) Various statistical tests are classified as inferential methods. Basically, inferential
statistics are necessary: When hypotheses are to be tested. When we need to infer that the observed relation would occur in similar. sample groups or large population, we use inferential statistics to provide a means. For drawing conclusions about a population. Refer to Example of Block 3 Unit 1: You will have to apply inferential statistics to test the hypothesis that the patients who received breathing exercises preoperatively developed less respiratory complications after operation when compared with the control group. Firstly, the researcher need to infer with confidence that the findings indicate true difference between the experimental and control group, i.e., the occurrence of "less complications" are not by chance in the experimental group- Secondly, the investigator has to infer "can the findings be applied to the entire population of patients having surgery?' Thus the inferential statistics provide an estimate of how reliable the observation are:
Given below are some of the examples of statistical analysis including inferential statistics used for testing hypothesis: Statistical Methods Used for Hypothesis Testing
1.2.3 Steps .in Descriptive Analysis Data Research^ Analjsis Reput^ iultl t
Following steps are taken by the researcher for preparing the data for analysis. If the data are not large and the analysis process is simple, the researcher usually processes the analysis by-hand using a simple calculator; otherwise computer services are sought for data processing.
Use of Master List
Checking the data is extremely important particularly in surveys.
This should be started when the data are being collected, i.e., to make sure
that the respondent or the recorder does not leave any question or item
unanswered. This is not possible in a mailed questionnaire. This is necessary because it is very unlikely that revisits can be made for completing the data omitted by the respondents.
Steps
The fust step is to sort the data. Data are sorted according to the variables
studied, e.g., if the analysis is to be done according to the male group and female group or in the age group of youth, adult and old age, the researcher has to then arrange the data-sheets appropriately in different piles. For example, refer to IND-HND-007, in Block 3 the investigator had collected data from 57 women. She had decided that the important variables were i) women from two villages, Bataur and Barwala ii) number of deliveries conducted by trained personnel and by untrained persons. Hence the interview responses were first separated into two piles as per the villages. Further each village pile was sorted as deliveries conducted by untrained and trained personnel. Now there would be four piles.
The next step is to code the data by giving a number to each response for
easy recording of responses (coding is also necessary for computer analysis). For example, refer to IND-HND-007 and note the coding (hypothetical), e.g., Code No. 03 1 will mean Monthly income/Rs.200 or below; 012 is village Barwala. Code No. Villages Bataur 01. Barwala 01.
Age Below 35 02. Above 35 02. Monthly income 200 and Below 03.
Education Illiterate 04. Primary 04. Secondary 04. Deliveries conducted by trained personnel 05. By untrained personnel 05.
Now the data are ready for transferring them to the Master sheet. Note that for each variable presented in each column the total number will equal to total sample No. in this case 57.
Research hypothesis: Significantly more women of Barwala village, where the
sub-center is located, will prefer the trained personnel for delivery than the
women of Bataur village, where there is no health center.
Null hypothesis: There will be no association between the Barwala and Bataus
women's choice for trained personnel for delivery and the location of health
center.
Refer Table 6 of ~ - ~ B - 0 0 7study, The data presented show that chi-square
= 5.31, dfi, PC .05, which was found to be statistically significant at .05 level
of significance. Thus null hypothesis of no difference was rejected and research
hypothesis was accepted; i.e., more number of women of Barwala village,
where the sub-centre is located, showed significant preference for utilizing
trained personnel than the women tiom the other village. Note the descriptive
analysis in Tables 5 and 6 where data are summarized in frequencies and
percentages and are presented in tabular fom. The chi-square test is an
inferential statistics and is used to test the hypothesis of association (See Chi-
square in glossary). Let us see what is meant by level of significance. 0
Level of significance: In the above example the level of significance chosen is
.05, when the researcher has studied a specific population and wants to know if
the findings are true (i.e. sigdicantj md not by chance. It is a statistical
concept and stated in quantitative term, like .05, -01, .001 etc. The level of
significance represents the amount of risk the researcher is willing to take in
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis: If level .05 is accepted, it means that, in
5 out of 100 or in one out of 20 times, the cesearcher may accept or reject null
hypothesis, when the opposite is true.
In other words, the researcher is willing to run a 5 per cent error when slhe
rejects the null hypothesis.
iii) Generalization
Generalizations refer to the application of findings to a particular population,
i s. , haw far the researcher can stretch the conclusions from the sample
findings. For example, from a group of 800 students you draw a sample of 100
students randomly, and assess their attitude towards HIV/L41DS. Can you now
generalize!predict the attitude of 800 students on the findings of these 100
students Will these 100 students have same attitude as the other students of
India?
A principle commonly fsllvwed in research is that generatbations can Re made
ftom the findings if the sample is representative of the populat~on. Prediction
is a special k p e of generalization that'involves forecasting. Empirjcally ,
generalizations and predictions are established through inductive reasocing. If
we are stre that sample number is adequate, and ti~at the sample is
representative of the population the^ we can safely generalize from the
research results.
To Summarize
Analysis is the step of research that begins from the designing stage, i.e., when
the researcher thinks of the rationale for finding the type of data that are
appropriate to analyzs the study objectives and hypothesis. The selection or the
development of the research instrument is often guided by this consideration.
Data Analysls and Reseemh Report
The word analysis means the sorting, ordering and summarizing the data to
find answers to research questions: whereas interpretation refers to the study
of results of data analysis for inference and conclusions.
Data Analysis and introduction to Statistics
Descriptive statistics enable the researcher to reduce, summarize and describe the data obtained. Some of the common methods used are: frequencies, percentage, ratio, proportion, graphical presentation, measures of central tendency, measures of variability and correlation coefficient. Inferential statistics help in testing hypothesis and in analyzing the data to draw conclusions about a population. Example of inferential statistical analyses are chi-square and t-test.
Sorting data, preparation of master sheet and presentation of data in frequencies and percentage are few important steps in descriptive analysis of data. For inferential statistical analysis null hypothesis is stated, level of significance is identified. The result is checked against rejections or acceptance of null hypothesis.
Activity 1 Read Research Report on Project IND-HND-007 given in the beginning of Block 3 and identify the types (s) of analysis the researcher had applied in her study.
Data Aoalyeh and latroductlon to ,Strt&tka
The Memory Unit is Mher divided into
RAM: Random Access Memory
ROM R d only Memory
And Cache Memory (Pronounced as "Cash")
RAM: is used for storing data and instructions that are currently being used
for immediate Access Memory. This memory can be erased when the power
supply is cut off (it is referred as volatile)
CPU: is unit that is fully electronic. It is made of millions of electronic
components etched on to a number of silicon chips. These chips are all
assembled on Printed Circdt Board called Mother Board.
a
Functions of the CPU are : (1) Store data and instructions, (2) control the
operations, and (3) carry out processing,
The equipment for input devices. output devices, CPU and S e c o n w Storage
Devicm me Collectively called Hardware.
DATA: Data is defined as information or facts related to people, places, events,
things or anything that can be represented using numbers and letters.
FOP' example
Age : represented as numbers - 10, 20, 22 etc.
Instruction: Lnstructiom specify what must be done with the &ta
For example, Add the numbers
The fbnctions of Secondary Storage Devices are to store the data and have
ir@tmctions permanently on diffkrent types of secondary storage media, .such as
Floppy Disk Drive (FDD), Hard Disk Drive (HDD)'to store and retrieve fiom a
Hard Disk and Cartridge Type Drive (GTD) and cartridge tape.
Terminal: A combination of the keyboard (to input data) and VDU {to output
data) is called a terminal.
There are different types of computers, such as Digttal Computers, which measure digital data and perfom arithmetic and logical operations: Analog Computers - which measures eontiawusly changing conditions, such as, temperature, pressure a d conver& them into quantities. Hybrid^ Computers^ -
which combine features of Analog and Digital Computers; General Purposes
Computers - a computer is &signed to solve a wide range of problem. Majority of digital computers are of this type.
13.3 Advantages of a Computer
Kt provides the foUowiog advantages:
i) A^ computer^ is^ capable^ of performing^ calculations at^ very^ high^ speed..
Stored data can be retrieved also at very high s p e d. ii) The computer @ i repetitive jobs without making any mist&& and
without getting tired Hence, it is more reliable in doing these tasks than
probably huaan brain.
iii) The computer can be for variety of jobs - calculations, data retrieval, etc. - i-e., Vgtsatilify.
Storage Devices. The
the advantage of proceeding data at very high speed, repeatedly without making
mistakes and can be used for variety of jobs. We shall next proceed to discuss
health statistics in the following section.
1.4 WRITING A RESEAFkCH REPORT
No research is complete unless the report is written and communicated. It is
necessary for you as the researcher to maintain proper notes on progress made,
e.g., problem statement objectives, justifications for the study, review of
literature, development of instruments for data collection, hypothesis, sample
description and sampling technique, pilot study, problems faced in data
collection, the data and the analysis. These notes help in preparing the research
report.
1.4.1 Purpose
The main purpose of research report is to let others interested in the subject
know the findings of the research. The researcher himseltlherself may have
definite purpose of writing the research report.
Examples of purposes are listed below:
- Research^ is^ conducted for the partial fulfillment of the degree^ like^ M.Sc.,
Ph.D. Therefore writing report is a part sf the academic programme.
2) Research is conducted to find^ an^ answer to the problems faced by^ the
practitioner, teacher or administrator. Here the report is written to
communicate the findings to others in the profession for critiquing,
application of result or future investigation in the area of research.
3) When the research is funded by the government or a research foundation.
They stipulate the requirements of the report.
1.4.2 Types of Research ~ e ~ o ; b
The &ctors that govern the types of research report are purpose of writing the
report, expected readers of the report, time at hand and the money available.
Most common types of research reports are:
i) Thesis: The^ research^ report^ written^ for^ the partial^ fulfillment^ of the^ degree
requirement.
ii) Research Monogrsph: The r a e m h report Mitten to communicate the
methodology and findings of a scientific work specially when it is
supported by a funding agency.
iii) Research Artkle: The research report written for publication in a professional journal..
iv) Newspaper M a w e Articie: The research report is written to
~mmunicate the findings to the general public. Usually a non-technical
language is used in writing an article for g d public.
1.43 Content
The content of a research report may vaay accordii to the institutional or
putslidon requirements. Before. a researcher sits down to write, S h e should
fiasQ out rk requii=mentsof the academic institution, funding agency or the
pubilcation agency. An outline of ihe, c a f m t s of a typical report is given
beis w:
Sometimes non-research literature are also included in the review but these are mostly theories and principles. The writer should acknowledge all sources of literature using accepted form of presentation. At the end of the chapter summarizk the review presented.
This is the second chapter of the thesis report. Theoretical framework may follow the review of literature. It is important to bring out a comprehensive summary in the last paragraph of the chapter. For an article, usually a paragraph or two are written on the related research review.
Methodology
This section contains i) the research approach, design (specially if experimental or evaluated method is adopted), ii) description of dependent and independent variables (if these are not discussed in Chapter 11), iii) development or selection of research instrument including pretesting, reliability and validity, iv) description of the tool, v) description of study setting, vi) sample and sampling technique, vii) procedure for data collection, and. viii) plan of data analysis.
The summary of the chapter is a necessity if the chapter is long.
This is the third chapter of the thesis report. The organization of different section may vary on which comes first or second because there is no hard-and- fast rule about it. The writer using herhis intuition and logic. Use figures necessary to show the desigri or relation of variables.
If the researcher has used a standardized tool or an instrument prepared by some other researcher, he or she needs to take the author's (instrument) permission. There are tests when are confidential in nature, In that case the instrument is not given in the Appendix.
This is also a major section in an article. A brief description of each of the sub- section are mentioned above are presented in brief. Usually the content is presented under the heading of method or research design and cover at least 4- paragraphs in the article.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
This is one of the major chapters/sections which presents: i) the methods used for analysis, and ii) the findings of the study. It is a logical development of analysis presented according to the objectives and hypothesis stated in earlier section.
One of the most common methods of presentation of descriptive analysis is: i) To use tat and graphs. ii) The statistical analysis for the test of significance is presented by stating the null-hypothesis, the inferential statistics selected and indicating the result of test of significance. iii) Use tables to present data.
Usually interpretation of statistical analysis is done as the author presents each table or graph. Testing of hypothesis should indicate rejection or acceptance of null hypothesis all its interpretation. At the end of analysis chapter a summary of major findings are present following a discussion of findings. In a thesis or monograph, sometimes a chapter is written on discussion of the findings where the author compares the present result with findings other studies indicating the similarities and differences. This may be presented in one or chapter 1 forming either the fourth or the fourth and fifth chapters.
Data analysis and discussion make the main body of the article. Essential tables and figures are included. Discussion is presented under a separate heading.
Data Analysis and Research Rcporr
Data Analysis and Introduction to Statistics
Summary, Conclusion, Implication and Recommendations The summary contains briefly all the research steps including the list of major findings; usually tables and figures are not used in this chapter.
i) All expected and unexpected findings and the conclusions drawn from each of the findings are presented. It also explains how far generalization of results can be made The researcher also reasons out if the hypothesis tested is found to be not significant.
ii) The implication indicate author's reflective thinking in terms of possible application of the result. For example, if the survey indicate 70 per cent of pregnant women are anaemic, the implications may be written on the probable reasons for anaemia and what health care strategies can be adopted to improve the status. In other words, that implications suggest the values of these findings in terms of patient care improve educational changes or the administrative strategies to be adopted. iii) Limitations of the present study are noted here. Limitations are those restrictions or problems which the researcher had not deliberately planned out but comes across while doing the study.
iv) The recommendations give direction to future research and suggestion for improving the present study. Usually a monograph expounds on the conclusions and implications. It not only says what may happen if the system continues but also what need to be done for future.
v) Besides a summary,^ an^ abstract is prepared (executive summary) which usually contains 500-1000 words.
In an article two or three paragraphs are written to discuss the implications. A short summary is made which is usually put as a synopsis at the beginning of the article.
Appendices, Bibliography, References This section is specially needed for thesis and monograph and is not required for an article. Except that all references used in the content are to be listed at the end of the article. An approved style is to be adopted to write the references and bibliography.
Acknowledgement, Preface, Table of Content Acknowledgement, table of content, list of tables and figures are included in the first part of the research report. The monograph in addition also includes a page on preface. Articles do not require this section.
Outline of the Format of the Research Report Research reports usually follow the structure given below or modified according to institution's specification.
A) Beginning Title Page Sponsors approval Table of Contents List of Table and Figures Acknowledgement Abstract
ix) Writing is a difficult task, specially when one is not used to writing research report is advisable to take help of a critic or editor.
x) Use headings and sub-headings for writing an article or thesis as headings indicate organization. The following style is suggested:
A Centered Main Heading
Side Heading
An indented paragraph heading
The three headings are underlined (instead bold prints inay be used). Note that every word starts with capital letter for centre and side hzadings but not in paragraph heading. Except for paragraph heading no punctuations (like periodfullstop, comma, colon) are used at the end of the heading statement. Whichever pattern is used for organizing the content, method consistently in the manuscript.
xi) Use the symbol for per cent (%) only when preceded by a number e.g., 22%. Otherwise use the word percentage when a number is not given. If the per cent is used in the running text it is better to use the word and not the symbol. But use the symbol in the table or when the number is used in parentheses. Examples: Majority (80%) of the children were malnourished. Children in the age group of below five years 80 per cent were malnourished.
xii) Usually a sentence is not started with a number; but if used write the number in words.
Example 1
Eighty per cent of children were malnourished. Some numbers are expressed in words in the text, i.e., any number below 10 is written in words. Example: Out of 100 subjects nine were female students.
Bibliography and References
There are different styles of writing bibliography and references. The writer has to select one of the recommended methods or follow the method prescribed by the publisher or the institution. There may by minor changes in punctuation and order, but basic elements remain the same between methods. In this unit the form recommended by the American Psychological Association (APA style) is used.
A reference list cites works that are specifically referredquoted in the writing,
e.g., in quotation; in reference to theory, in reference to the selection of tool etc. Each reference cited in the text must be entered in the reference list. This
is in contrast to a bibliography list which cites works for background or
further reading and not necessarily they have been referred in the text. In other words all the relevant studies that have helped the researcher in planning and conducting the research and in analyzing the research result are included in the bibliography list.
The writing of reference or bibliography style is followed religiously. If there is any omission or haphazard writing, the manuscript is usually returned, i.e., not accepted. Therefore, the students are cautioned for proper use of the style.
Arrange the elements in a reference entry in the following order:
Author: All authors of the work, with surnames and initials (not fill name) in inverted order. Title: article, chapter, or book Facts of publication: For journals - journal name in fill, date of publication, volume number, inclusive pages. For books - city of publication, publisher's name, date of publication. Punctuation: Use periods (or fill stop) to separate the three major sub-' divisions of a reference citation: author title and publication data. Use commas (,) within subdivisions (e.g., between data and volume number in a journal entry) use a colon (:) between the place of publication and the publisher, use parentheses (( )) for extensions, qualifications or interpretations of each sub-divisions or the entire entry. Underline the title of the book and the name of the journal.
Example 2
Periods separate the sub-division:
* Author * Title of the Work - * Publication Data
Commas separate within sub-divisions:
Journal (Underline the volume number and Journal title)
Book ' J.B. Lippicott Company, 1979'
A Colon separates the place of publication and the publisher:
'Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincon Company, 1979
I
Parenthesis extended, qualify, or interpret ( note the book title is underlined)
Book
Journal
Dato Analysis and Research Report
Where each issue of journal starts with page 1, enter issue number after volume.
Inverted order of names (surname first)
Polit, D.F. - One author
Polit, D.F. & Hungler, B.P. - Two authors
Writing Book Reference
Example 3
Polit, D.F. & Hungler B.P., Nursing Research, Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott Company, 1979.
1.4.5 Sample Research Report
Title: A'Study^ on Development of Evaluation Model for Nursing
Programme through Distance Education
The Development of Programme Evaluation Model for Nursing Programme through Distance Education was carried out by Kapoor, Bimla in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy. A developmental approach with opinion survey was adopted to achieve the objectives of the study. The present study was carried at the School of Education, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India.
The objective of the study were: i) To construct a set of evaluative criteria for the development of a programme evaluation model, ii) To develop a programme evaluation model for nursing programme through distance education, iii) To determine empirical validation of the programme evaluation model on the B.Sc. Nursing Programme of IGNOU.
The sample of the study comprised experts from nursing education and distance education. All 405 third year leamers who appeared for the mental health nursing terminal examination conducted in December, 2002 and their 35 Academic Co~sellorswho were involved in conduct of theory and practical courses of mental health nursing were a part of the study. The records of IGNOU also formed the sample of the study.
The instruments developed and used for generating necessary data were: I) evaluative criteria checklist for the development of PEM, ii) programme evaluation model checklist, iii) records checklist, iv) opinionnaire for the learners on mental health nursing course on theory and practical and v) opinionnaire for the academic counselors on mental health nursing courses in theory and practical.
The data obtained were analyzed using frequency and percentage. Qualitative analysis was done for open-ended responses. (^) Chi-square was used to test the significance of references in the responses of two groups.
Significant findings of the study revealed that all the experts agreed on the most of the items on the evaluative criteria. However, some suggested a reorganization of items which were incorporated. The final evaluative criteria had eight areas. Guidelines were developed as suggested by experts.
There was 100 per cent agreement by the experts on most of the items on the PEM in terms of experts' comments the PEM was finalized under three frames: evaluation of and development, evaluation of implementation and evaluation of monitoring.
The empirical validation of the PEM was established by testing it on the B.Sc. Nursing Programme of IGNOU through records checklist, opinion of learners and opinion academic counselors.
Findings revealed that records were available on almost all the areas listed in the records checklist.
It was found that the mean age of learners were 40.3 years and most of them were female. Three fourth of nurses worked as staff nurses. The mean gap of resuming education was 8 years.
The profile of Academic Counselors indicated that about half of the ACs
were in age group of 29-50 years. Most of them were women. As many as
Data Analysis and Research Report
Data Analysis and Introduction to Statistics
46 per cent had specialization in mental health and psychiatric nursing. On a: average, ACs had 15 years of teaching experience and 18 years of clinical experience.
It was found that both the groups, the learners and academic counselors
provided evidence to the effect that the various dimensions mentioned in the
recommendations of PEM were relevant.
The two groups differed in their opinion on adequacy of lab facilities and use of academic media. Both the groups emphasized that increasing theory counseling and practical contact sessions in mental health nursing course was important.
Based on the findings on the research, it was recommended that a study may be conducted on empirical validation on implementation of PEM on larger sample. It was also recommended that PEM can be tested on other distance education programme for nursing. Empirical validation of PEM may be done by using other tools to establish its reliability.
Good Research generally builds on existing knowledge. Links between new research and existing knowledge are developed through review of the prior research on a topic and through efforts to identify an appropriate theoretical framework for the research problem. Both these activities are important not only because they provide a conceptual context for a scientific investigation, but also because they may help the researcher to refine and delitinit the problem to be studies..
Activity 2
Read the research report of IND-HND-007 given in the beginning of BNS-111,
Block 3 and answer the following questions.
i) What was the purpose of her writing the research report? ii) What is the type of report? iii) How many paragraphs have been used to explain the methodology?
iv) How are the findings-of descriptive,^ analysis presented?
