Docsity
Docsity
Prepara tus exámenes
Prepara tus exámenes

Prepara tus exámenes y mejora tus resultados gracias a la gran cantidad de recursos disponibles en Docsity

Consigue puntos base para descargar
Consigue puntos base para descargar

Gana puntos ayudando a otros estudiantes o consíguelos activando un Plan Premium

Orientación Universidad
Orientación Universidad
Vende en Docsity
Vende en Docsity
Docsity AI
Docsity AI
Inicia sesiónRegístrate

Prepara tus exámenes

Prepara tus exámenes y mejora tus resultados gracias a la gran cantidad de recursos disponibles en Docsity

Busca documentos

Prepara tus exámenes con los documentos que comparten otros estudiantes como tú en Docsity

Busca tu universidad

Encuentra los documentos específicos para los exámenes de tu universidad

Video Cursos

Estudia con lecciones y exámenes resueltos basados en los programas académicos de las mejores universidades

Quiz

Responde a preguntas de exámenes reales y pon a prueba tu preparación

Docsity AINEW

Resume tus documentos, hazles preguntas, conviértelos en quiz y mapas conceptuales

Ver preguntas

Despeja tus dudas leyendo las respuestas a las preguntas que realizaron otros estudiantes como tú

Consigue puntos base para descargar

Gana puntos ayudando a otros estudiantes o consíguelos activando un Plan Premium

Compartir documentos
download point icon20 Puntos

Por cada documento subido

Responde a las preguntas
download point icon5 Puntos

por cada respuesta dada (máx. 1 al día)

Todos los modos para conseguir puntos gratis
Consigue puntos de inmediato

Elige un plan Premium con todos los puntos que necesitas.

Oportunidades de estudio

Elige tu próximo programa de estudio

Ponte en contacto inmediatamente con las mejores universidades del mundo. Busca entre miles de universidades en todo el mundo. Busca entre miles de universidades partner oficiales

Comunidad

Pregúntale a la comunidad

Pide ayuda a la comunidad y resuelve tus dudas de estudio

Ebooks gratuitos

¡Nuestros e-books salva-estudiantes!

Descarga nuestras guías gratuitas sobre técnicas de estudio, métodos para controlar la ansiedad y consejos para la tesis preparadas por los tutores de Docsity

English syntax Tema 1, Apuntes de Morfología y Sintaxis

Universitat de València (UV)Morfología y Sintaxis

English syntax T1 prof Carmina.

Tipo: Apuntes

2020/2021

Subido el 25/02/2021

baihu
baihu 🇪🇸

4.8

(5)

6 documentos

1 / 35

Toggle sidebar

Esta página no es visible en la vista previa

¡No te pierdas las partes importantes!

bg1
T1. Discourse, Grammar and syntax: Basic concepts
1. What is grammar?
a. Grammar involves the study of all the principles that organize language : information about
the sound system, about the form of words, how we adjust language according to context…
i. Grammar has to do with word order, reference, closeness, and meaning in general
ii. Grammar has two main components:
1. Syntax: the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the
study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts.
2. Morphology
a. structure and rules for word formation, derivational affixation clipping,
blending, compounding, forming acronyms, and coining, inflectional
affixation.
b. Morphology divides words into morphemes, the smallest unit of meaning
b. Knowledge of language: native intuition about certain linguistic components of each speaker’s
native language.
c. Language is a unity that interrelates simultaneously different types of patterns, but is
necessary to separate these patterns into distinct levels of structure for analytical reasons:
i. Phonology (sound system)
ii. Morphology (word structure and word formation):
iii. Lexicology (study of the lexicon)
iv. Syntax (structure)
v. Semantics (conventional linguistic meaning)
vi. Graphology (spelling system and punctuation)
vii. Pragmatics (meaning of utterances beyond the sentence)
2. A discourse approach to grammar and syntax
a. Grammar instruction has always been a controversial topic: whether and how it should be taught
to natives / foreign learners.
b. Depending on the approach selected, grammar can be a useful tool for language learning or just
a way of learning about grammatical rules in decontextualized formal kinds of instructions.
c. A grammar can be said to fall under one of these 3 general types:
i. Prescriptive grammar: Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as
certain people think it should be used. Prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and
teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use
of language
ii. Descriptive grammar: refers to the structure of a language as it's actually used by
speakers and writers. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the
rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences
iii. Generative: Chomsky, father of Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG), believed
grammar has a set of rules that allow us to create correct sentences. TGG relies on rules
based in adding, deleting, moving and substituting processes
d. Our approach: Functional grammar
i. Following the principles of functional grammar (Halliday): grammar cannot be
studied independently but should be dealt with within a broader framework of language
and understanding. We account for each element in the language by describing how it
functions.
ii. Grammar is about communicative purposes and is always contextualized with regard
to the particular social participants. Grammar is about turning words into messages.
1. Grammar is used in order to understand and explain how significant and
functional patterns of words help us create meaning in spoken and written
language.
iii. Carter, Hughes & McCarthy:
1. Grammar of choice: When we create language, we have a choice that caries
according to the purpose, medium and addressee of the message.
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa
pfd
pfe
pff
pf12
pf13
pf14
pf15
pf16
pf17
pf18
pf19
pf1a
pf1b
pf1c
pf1d
pf1e
pf1f
pf20
pf21
pf22
pf23

Vista previa parcial del texto

¡Descarga English syntax Tema 1 y más Apuntes en PDF de Morfología y Sintaxis solo en Docsity!

T1. Discourse, Grammar and syntax: Basic concepts

  1. What is grammar? a. Grammar involves the study of all the principles that organize language: information about the sound system, about the form of words, how we adjust language according to context… i. Grammar has to do with word order, reference, closeness, and meaning in general ii. Grammar has two main components:
  2. Syntax: the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts.
  3. Morphology a. structure and rules for word formation, derivational affixation clipping, blending, compounding, forming acronyms, and coining, inflectional affixation. b. Morphology divides words into morphemes, the smallest unit of meaning b. Knowledge of language: native intuition about certain linguistic components of each speaker’s native language. c. Language is a unity that interrelates simultaneously different types of patterns, but is necessary to separate these patterns into distinct levels of structure for analytical reasons: i. Phonology (sound system) ii. Morphology (word structure and word formation): iii. Lexicology (study of the lexicon) iv. Syntax (structure) v. Semantics (conventional linguistic meaning) vi. Graphology (spelling system and punctuation) vii. Pragmatics (meaning of utterances beyond the sentence)
  4. A discourse approach to grammar and syntax a. Grammar instruction has always been a controversial topic: whether and how it should be taught to natives / foreign learners. b. Depending on the approach selected, grammar can be a useful tool for language learning or just a way of learning about grammatical rules in decontextualized formal kinds of instructions. c. A grammar can be said to fall under one of these 3 general types: i. Prescriptive grammar: Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language ii. Descriptive grammar: refers to the structure of a language as it's actually used by speakers and writers. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences iii. Generative: Chomsky, father of Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG), believed grammar has a set of rules that allow us to create correct sentences. TGG relies on rules based in adding, deleting, moving and substituting processes d. Our approach: Functional grammar i. Following the principles of functional grammar (Halliday): grammar cannot be studied independently but should be dealt with within a broader framework of language and understanding. We account for each element in the language by describing how it functions. ii. Grammar is about communicative purposes and is always contextualized with regard to the particular social participants. Grammar is about turning words into messages.
  5. Grammar is used in order to understand and explain how significant and functional patterns of words help us create meaning in spoken and written language. iii. Carter, Hughes & McCarthy:
  6. Grammar of choice: When we create language, we have a choice that caries according to the purpose, medium and addressee of the message.
  1. Grammar of structure: Rules the speaker needs to know use a certain form of language effectively. iv. Grammar of spoken language should be looked at with equal interest as the grammar of written English. v. Grammar should be taught with examples taken from real contexts of grammar in use, since authentic examples tell us how speakers and writers communicate in a variety of situations. vi. Grammar cannot be abstracted from the meaning of the syntactic constituents that may form a sentence, but both meaning and syntactic structure are equally important to understand a sentence.
  2. Learning about Grammar and Syntax: (vs. old-fashioned conception of grammar as something obscure, tedious and useless) a. Grammar is useful to improve my English skills and communicate better with others. b. Grammar helps me understand the way people wrote in different periods of time and thus helps me to read books more fluently c. Grammar makes it possible for me to differentiate between more colloquial and formal styles of speaking and writing d. Grammar allows me to be creative and purposeful in English.
  3. Text: What is a text? a. Components of a text: i. Texture: Holds a text together coherence & cohesion
  4. The way meanings in the text fit coherently with each other
  5. Cohesion: property of the text – lexical and grammatical dependencies (refernces, ellipsis, lexis, linking words…)
  6. Coherence: a state in which all ideas fit together. ii. Structure: obligatory structural elements appropriate to their purpose and context b. Traits: i. A text is a piece of language in use  language that is functional ii. A text is a harmonious collection of meanings appropriate to its context
  7. The importance of context a. Context  all that’s going on in the world outside a text that significantly shape it. i. As speakers, our language varies depending on what we are talking about and to whom. Language choice is influenced by the context. b. Functional view of language: we explore the reasons for the changes and describe how each element functions in language. c. Elements that make up a context of situation: i. Participants ii. Action (verbal & non verbal) iii. Place iv. Time d. The context is realized in meaning choices, the meaning choices are realized in the lexicogrammatical choices in sounds, writing or gestures… i. Language is a vast multileveled system in which speakers and writers make lexicogrammatical choices motivated by the meaning appropriate to a given context.
  8. Spoken vs. written discourse a. Approach: i. For centuries, dictionaries and grammars have taken written language as a benchmark for what is proper and standard in language, using literary examples. Spoken language was considered imperfect, incorrect and not worthy to study. ii. Nowadays, linguistics value spoke language and consider it legitimate and worthy of attention. b. Differences: i. Written discourse: permanent, planned (also can be edited and revised), punctuation to make long sentences legible, clause combining, broader lexis, audience can be unknown and unlimited
  1. For instance, frequency adverbs such as often and usually, and modal verbs like probably, resist clefting (*It’s often/ usually/ probably that Muriel saw the man in the service station).
  2. The finite verbal elements of a clause normally resists fronting (*Saw Muriel the man in the service station) iii. Nevertheless, if 2 or more operations can be carried out satisfactorily, we can be sure that the sequence is a constituent of a larger unit.
  3. Units and ranks of units a. Language as a pattern: i. certain regularities can be distinguished throughout every linguistic manifestation in discourse. b. Concept of unit: Any sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and which has a recognized pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and writing. i. In the previous sentence: semantic whole and recognized pattern are units. Defined as any and repeated regularly are not units because they have no semantic whole and syntactic pattern. c. Rank-scale: a series of structural units which can be arranged in a relationship of componence i. Text/ discourse > sentence > phrase > word > morpheme > sounds
  4. Each unit consists of one or more of the units of the rank below ii. The concept of clause: a unit of grammatical organization. A group of words which in traditional grammar are said to consist of a subject and a predicate. iii. Symbols:
  5. Clause: // Irma leaves trail of storm damage in Caribbean //
  6. Phrase: [Irma] [leaves] [trail of storm damage] [in Caribbean]
  7. Word: space between words. iv. In syntactic analysis, the minimal unit is the word.
  8. Classes of units: a. Classes of clauses i. Finate and non finate clauses: Their status on finate / non finate depends on the form of the verb:
  9. Independent clauses: a. An independent clause is complete in itself, does not form part of a larger structure. b. All grammatically independent clauses are finate and marked for tense or modality. c. Only Independent clauses have the variations in clause structure that make for the different clause types: i. Declarative ii. Interrogative iii. Imperative iv. exclamative
  10. Dependent clauses: a. They are related to an independent clause. b. Dependent clauses may be finate or non finate.
  11. Finate clauses: marked for tense or modality a. Tensed forms: distinguish between present tense and part tense in regular and many irregular verbs. Person and number only marked in 3rd person singular. Tense is carried not only by lexical verbs but also auxiliaries (has, will) b. Modality: marked by modal verbs. c. When the speaker expresses tense of modality, together with a number and person, a finate verbal form is chosen and, therefore, the clause is also finate.
  12. Non-finate clauses: a. Verb form does not signal tense or modality.

b. Non-finite verb forms are: i. Infinitive ii. To + infinitive iii. Participial –ing form iv. Part participial form b. Classes of phrases i. Phrases are classified according to the class of the word operating as the head element.

  1. Noun phrase: (NP)
  2. Adjective phrase: (AdjP)
  3. Adverb phrase: (AdcP)
  4. Verb phrase (VP)
  5. Prepositional phrase (PP) ii. They center round the head element, which prototypically cannot be omitted.
  6. The head element can replace the whole structure.
  7. Only in the case of PP, one preposition alone cannot function as a PP. Prepositions need a complement to function as a unit.
  8. The head-base concept of a phrase allows for a phrase to consist of a single word and also for a phrase to host another phrase, rather than a word, as its head. c. Classes of words i. Words are classified around 3 criteria:
  9. Semantic: kinds of meanings words convey.
  10. Morphological: classification on the basis of the forms of words.
  11. Syntactic: Types of words that occur in their environment / where words typically occur in a sentence. ii. Function vs. category/ class:
  12. Function: When we view a linguistic unit as an element playing a role in a larger unit structure.
  13. Category: When we view it as something that has individual traits shared with other units of the same. a. The division in syntactic categories is the result of breaking a sentence down into words and assigning words to categories which function in the same way along the language continuum. iii. Open / closed:
  14. Open classes: a. Large membership b. Addition of new members c. Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs i. Noun: denotes person, places, things ii. Verb: express occurrence of an action, existence of a state ansd the like, and other words that show similar grammatical behavior. iii. Adjective: modify or limit noun iv. Adverb: they modify a verb, verbal noun or an adverbial phrase/ clause
  15. Closed classes: a. Few members b. Fixed list: Highly resistant to the addition of new members c. Preposition, determinative, coordinator, subordinator, interjection i. Pronoun: substitute nouns ii. Preposition: placed before a noun to indicate their relation to other words or their function in a sentence iii. Determinative: the, a, any, some, my, your. They indicate the kind of reference which the noun has 1. Semi-determinative: own, certain, former, later, same, other, last, both.

ii. There is no one-to-one correspondence between realization/category and function. There is actually a many-to-many relationship

  1. For example the NP (mh) next time can fulfill the following clause functions: a. Subject: Next time will be better b. Adjunct: I’ll know better next time c. Direct object: We’ll enjoy next time.
  2. Also, many words belong to more than one class: a. They cut a round hole in the side  adjective b. She’ll soon come round  adverb c. Let’s round it up to 10. verb d. She bought a round of drinks  noun e. She disappeared round the corner prep. iii. A piece of discourse is not just a grammatical unit, bus a pragmatic-semantic unit of whatever length which forms a unified whole, with respect both to its internal properties and to the social context of its production.
  4. A discourse is made up of various types of pragmatic acts, which in turn are realized semantically and syntactically.
  5. Expanding linguistic units: a. Units can be expanded to enable the speaker to add more information. Most elements of structure can be realized more than once, recursively. b. Coordination: i. Heads of nominal phrases: books, papers and magazines. ii. Modifier in a NP: a beautiful and astonishing sight iii. Modifier in an AdjP: he says he is really and truly sorry for that. iv. Adjuncts in a clause: you can put in the application now or in a month’s time or next year. c. Subordination i. Examples:
  6. Modifier in a NP: a very lovable, (if rather dirty), small boy
  7. Cs in a clause: He is quite brilliant (through totally unreliable).
  8. Adjuncts in a clause: We arrived (late (though not too late)) for the wedding.
  9. Dependent clauses: I’ll let you borrow the CDs (as soon as I’ve finished) [provided you bring them back [when I need them]]. a. The forth clause when I need them is dependent on the third clause provided you bring them back , these form a block which is dependent on the block formed by the first (independent) clause I’ll let you borrow the CDs and its dependent clause as soon as I’ve finished. ii. Terminology :
  10. Compound sentence: units of 2 or more coordinated clauses
  11. Complex sentence: Units containing dependent clauses or dependent AND conjoined clauses.
  12. Subordination: for both subordination and embedding. d. Embedding i. A type of subordination where the element necessarily plays a syntactic function in the overall sentence. ii. The process by which one clause is included (embedded) in another. More broadly, embedding refers to the inclusion of any linguistic unit as part of another unit of the same general type. iii. Pervasive phenomenon, found in elements such as the following:
  13. Clause at S: [That he left so abruptly] does not surprise me.
  14. Clause at Od: I don’t know [why he left so abruptly]
  15. Clause at c in a PP: Im pleased about [Janet winning a prize]
  16. Clause at m in NP: Thanks for the card [you sent me]
  17. Clause at A: [After they had signed the contract] they went off to celebrate.
  1. Phrase in phrase: [[[Tom’s sister’s] husband’s] mother. //The bod [on top of the cupboard [in my bedroom]] T2. Nouns and Noun Phrases
  2. Definition: Nouns a. Nouns enable us to refer to people, animals, things, and places, and how we perceive them or experience them, so that we convey our worldview.
  3. Types of nouns (Form) a. Common vs. Proper Nouns i. Common noun: words that refer to entities that are not unique: cat, table, book ii. Proper noun: refer to unique entities: people (John), places (Spain), religions (Buddhism), calendar terms (Christmas), institutions or organizations, periodicals (The Tomes), languages, and nationalities. iii. The is no absolute clear-cut division, because proper nouns can sometimes function as common nouns by taking determiners (The Smiths) b. Common nouns can be: Countable vs. Uncountable/mass nouns i. Countable:
  4. Count nouns: denote entities perceived as separate units. They have singular and plural forms. These entities include people, animals, things, units of measurement (metre) and general partitives (bit)
  5. Collective nouns: refer to groups of people viewed as single units: police, family, pack, herd, official bodies and organizations such as BBC, UN, Congress Parliament) a. Some are invariably plural: cattle b. Others admit both, depending on whether the group is considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of individuals (the police, committee) ii. Uncountable/mass: convey entities that cannot be counted, hence, they show no contrast between singular and plural.
  6. Solids (gold), liquids (water), gases (Hydrogen), diseases, emotional and other states of mind (happiness), qualities (importance), topics (politics), and processes (fertilization), abstract concepts.
  7. Most are singular, but some are plural. These cannot combine with numerals, and cannot be counted: instruments (glasses, goggles), garments (jeans, overalls, knickers), tools (scissors) iii. Dual membership: some nouns can be used both as count and mass nouns.
  8. There is usually a difference in the meaning: I’d like a cake / I’d like some cake
  9. Or completely difference in the meaning: I’d like a toast / I raise my cup for a toast. c. Latinate irregular plurals: addendum Addenda (appendix) antenna antennae alga algae bacterium bacteria alumnus alumni cactus cacti amoeba amoebae curriculum curricula datum data axis axes fungus fungi analysis analyses genus Genera (biological division) basis bases larva larvae crisis crises diagnosis diagnoses memorandum memoranda ellipsis ellipses stimulus stimuli

d. Classifying genitives (a dog’ s life) e. PrepP: off the record f. Participles: -ing participle g. Adverb: the then president h. Coordinated clauses: a take-it-or-leave-it attitude

  1. Post-modifiers: a. PrepP: the man in the blue suit b. Relative clause: the man who was wearing the blue suit it my uncle c. –ed clause: the man expelled from the country d. –ing clause: the man wearing the blue suit it my uncle e. to-infinitive clauses: the man to be sent to jail is my uncle f. Adj/AdjPs: the attorney general / the people present g. Adv/AdvPs: the food there is good h. Appositive clauses: (aposición entre comas) b. The function of NPs as constituents of other phrases i. NPs can be embedded within other NPs, when this happens NPs can function as:
  2. NPs as premodifiers (m) in NPs: a university education
  3. NPs as postmodifiers of another NP (m): a city the size of Madrid
  4. NPs as modifiers of AdjPs and AdvPs denoting measure (m): the box is two pounds heavier than that a. This sentence is not an NP with an adjective as qualifier, because the whole phrase can be replaced by the adjective head (he box is heavier than that), but not by the NP (*The box is two pounds)
  5. Completive of a PrepP (c): the letter is for his mother
  6. NPs can also modify PPs denoting time and distance (m): they arrived a week after his wedding: c. The function of NPs as constituents of sentences i. Subject of a sentence: the children are writing ii. Object of a verb: they are writing a note iii. Subject complement: The letter is an invitation iv. Object complement: he made the letter an invitation v. Indirect object: Who sent Mrs. Smith this letter? vi. Apposition to another noun or NP: The letter is for Mrs. Smith, his mother. vii. Vocative: Henry , what are you doing?
  7. Heads (pre-posed / fronted items) a. Heads or pre-posed items: device used by speakers to manipulate clause structures at the opening of clauses, with the intention of emphasizing, intensifying, etc. b. Helping the listener: i. Fronting identifies for a listener that a place, person or event is important. ii. They effect of using fronted items is to help the listener and highlight the type of information which is coming next. iii. The amount of information fronted depends on how much the speaker thins the listener already knows iv. Fronting links new information to what is already known c. Context of use: i. Very frequent in oral English, but some also could appear in written. ii. For example, in narrative, pre-posed units can highlight the main characters, or setting, or even give a summary of a key point. d. Syntax: i. Heads are usually NPs, including complex constructions such as relative clauses. ii. Heads are made up of structures without a main verb in a main clause. This element is then followed by a pronoun which normally becomes the subject of a following sentence (That coat, it looks very nice on you), but not always, though in these cases the subject is logically connected to the fronted item (My friend Janet, her sister is coming to stay with us)

iii. Clause elements other than the subject can also be fronted: the time we were living in Hong Kong, we….

  1. Determiners and pronouns
  2. Determiners and determinatives a. The determiner function particularizes the noun referent in different ways. They appear with nouns and limit their reference. i. The determiner function is realized by determinatives, those elements which identify a nominal group referent by telling us which or what or whose it is, how much, now many, what part or degree are we referring to, how big or frequent it is, how it is distributed in time ii. The term determinative (det) refers to the type of words that realize the function of determiner (d) b. Determinatives are closed class items c. At semantical level, determinatives express the different features the speaker choses to select and particularize and so help to identify the noun referent within the context of discourse.
  3. Types of determinatives a. Defining and particularizing i. Articles: definite and indefinite
  4. An entity is considered as indefinite if there is nothing in the discourse or the situation or our general knowledge of the world that identifies it for us. ii. Demonstratives:
  5. Provide deictic information, describing our reference to the world as specific and near (this, these), or not near (that, those) iii. Possessives:
  6. Possessives are deictic and specific and signal different kinds of relations, especially possessions.
  7. Genitive a. specifies either the owner or the subject or object of the second word. b. Different functions: (descriptive) i. My daughter’s car: possessive ii. Napoleon’s army: subjective (Napoleon commanded the army) iii. Napoleon’s defeat: objective (N. was defeated by X). iv. Today’s paper: temporal v. Europe’s chief cities: locative c. Sometimes genitive serves as a classifier of the following noun. (A hard plastic doll’s house) iv. Interrogative/relative: what, whose, which
  8. Wh-determinatives are deictic and indicate specific selection (which, whose) and non-specific selection (what, whatever). v. Exclamative: what a b. Quantifiers and distributives: they particularize the referent by referring to its quantity, which may be exact (two friends), non-exact (many friends) or partitive (three of my friends). They tell us how many and how much i. Selecting a quantifier depends of whether the referent is a count or mass noun:
  9. Quantifiers that work with count nouns: many, a few, few, several, a couple of, none of the.
  10. Quantifiers that work with mass nouns: not much, a little, little, a bit of, a good deal of, no
  11. Quantifiers that work with both: all of the, some, most of, enough, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a lack or ii. Types:
  12. Fractionals: two-thirds, half, a dozen…
  13. Multiplying: double, hundreds of

iii. Pronouns signal textual anaphoric reference, and function most prominently as heads of NPs. Thay can also be cataphoric sometimes (reference that comes later) When she parked her car, Sonia realized that.. iv. Difference between noun and pronouns:

  1. Pronouns are usually not accompanied by determiners. a. Exception: demonstrative pronouns can combine with ALL and BOTH ( all these ultimately failed ) b. Types of pronouns i. Personal pronouns
  2. General personal pronouns show different types of contrasts that help us distinguish between personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns
  3. Types of contrast: a. Case (subject, object, genitive)  He (subject), him (object), his (genitive) b. Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)  We (1), you (2), he (3) c. Number: singular and plural d. Gender: male and female ii. Possessive pronouns
  4. Possessive pronoun: mine, yours, his, hers, our, theirs
  5. Determiner: my, your, his/her, our, their
  6. Watch out: The white house is mine vs. My white house iii. Genitive pronouns:
  7. Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs a. Mine finally broke down yesterday.
  8. Its, one’s  accompanied by (very) own a. A: Do al the houses share the garden? B: No, each one has its own. iv. Reflexive pronouns
  9. Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
  10. Usually anaphoric, pointing back to subject forms of personal pronouns (She hurt herself) v. Reciprocal pronouns
  11. Each other, one another  semantically equivalent. They signal mutual action or relation
  12. Plural form: each other’s and one another’s vi. Relative pronouns Refer to subject Object possessive People Who Who(m) whose Animals and things which which whose Animals and thing that that
  13. Relative pronouns link a main and a subordinate clause, and therefore function similarly to a subordinating conjunction a. The difference between a relative pronoun and a conjunction is that relative pronouns do not simply mark the subordinate clause, but also function as subject or object of verbs while they also link clauses (I like cars which are fast) b. Conjunctions can be omitted (She told me that she was…), relative pronouns cannot because they fulfill a syntactical function (I like cars that are fast) vii. Interrogative pronouns:
  14. who, which, whom, what, whose viii. Demonstrative pronouns:
  15. Are the same in form as demonstrative determiners, and share their deictic functional meaning (pointing to something specific in the context)
  1. That’s what I thought ix. Indefinite pronouns:
  2. Anything, anybody, anyone, something, somebody, someone, nothing, nobody, no one, none, all x. The substitute one
  3. Numeral: I have one question to ask (determiner)
  4. Personal pronoun: Give me one for now
  5. Noun substitute: a. One has a generic sense when referring only to people. The pronoun one replaces count nouns, and is anaphoric as in (A: May I have those tapes) B: Which ones? xi. The pronoun such
  6. Same form and meaning as its corresponding determiner, and signals anaphoric or cataphoric reference.
  7. Anna is a good communicator, and as such, she reads her audience.
  8. Such is a determiner if there is a noun in the vicinity, if it doesn’t accompany a noun, it is a pronoun that has a reference in the text. c. Function of pronouns at phrase level i. Head of a NP  Those (pron) who are smart will pass.
  9. In these cases, the pronoun can take a post modifier (“who are smart”). ii. Completives of prepositions: John came with us d. Functions of pronouns at sentence level i. Functions:
  10. Subject (S): They worked very hard
  11. Direct object (Od): They invited them to the party
  12. Indirect object (Oi) You should buy her some flowers
  13. Subject complement (Cs) That’s me in the picture ii. Remarks:
  14. Subject and object personal pronouns, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns may take restrictive relative clauses as postmodifiers: He (personal pronoun) who plays with fire gets burnt.
  15. Object personal pronouns may be premodified by adjective and AdjPs: Silly you!
  16. Indefinite pronouns may take adjectives as post modifiers: someone horrible 4. Interrogative and indefinite pronouns may be postmodifiers by PPs: Who in the world would think that? e. Deictics: The pronouns it, this and that: i. The deictics this and that can function as NP head to refer to a whole proposition or situation or something inferred from it, as use which is classified as pronominal. ii. Deictis point at something in space (that girl) and time (that dinner was delicious) iii. The pronominal reference may be 1. Anaphoric: Hilda was making a cake. This was her speciality. 2. Cataphoric: This is a security announcement. Passengers have to… 3. Exophoric (something outside the sentence/discourse). I never thought things would come to this. (meaning to this extreme).  shared background knowledge, only the speakers know the meaning. iv. Use in discourse: 1. It: continues the topic. Does not introduce new topic
  17. This: a. Highlights or focuses upon a new topic, or something important and new in the text. b. Creates immediacy, and is used for things which are ‘here and now’ in the situation 3. That: a. we want to distance ourselves from an idea
  1. Take –ed, -ing, and –en endings
  2. Can be used attributively and predicatively
  3. Subjected to gradability a. How to distinguish between –ing adjectives from participial modifiers (rising prices): i. If it can be graded or intensified with very , we consider it a participial adjective (a very horrifying story); otherwise, it is a participial modifier (*A very sleeping child) ii. Compound adjectives
  4. Noun + adjective: tax-free
  5. Derterminative + noun: All-American
  6. Number + noun: two-year-old
  7. Adverb + participle: well-balanced, tight-fisted
  8. Adverb + adverb: well-off iii. Gradability in adjectives
  9. Gradability alludes to a scale of comparison which characterizes our perception of the entity modified.
  10. 3 points of view: equality – superiority – inferiority. These degrees correspond to: a. Absolute forms: describe the lowest point of view (easy task) b. Comparative forms: define its middle point (easier task) c. Superlative forms: depict its highest point (easiest task)
  11. Absolute forms like (as…as) are used to express equality of a property of an entity in relation to another. But degrees of superiority and inferiority are conveyed through suffixes (-er, -est), or periphrastically (more, most, less, least).
  12. Amplifiers like quite, very, etc. suggest a superior degree of a quality possessed by an entity.
  13. Downtoners like slightly and hardly express an inferior degree of such quality e. Comparative and superlative (review!) i. Comparative ending –er can be applied to one-syllable adjectives or two-syllable adjectives ending in: -y, -es, -ow, -le
  14. Meaning (semantic classes) of adjectives a. Types of meanings/semantic classes for adjectives: i. Inherent characteristics: ever-lasting qualities ii. Transient characteristics: changing (hungry) iii. Relations between entities: require complements (aware of, fond of) iv. Entities in terms of their actions: generous v. Classify entities into types: wooden spoon, Swedish films b. Gradable vs. non gradable i. Gradable: adjectives that denote scalar properties (cold)
  15. They can be pre-modified by degree expressions (usually adverb phrases) ii. Non gradable or absolute adjectives: describe categorical properties, properties that cannot be possessed in grades (unique, sole, rare) iii. Cross-classification of gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
  16. Although adjectives can be classified as gradable or non-gradable, they can be used (often with a semantic shift) as members of the other class. a. non-gradable adjective is pre-modified as if it were gradable: “They were very Scottish” b. Gradable treated as if non-gradable, pre-modified by items associated with non-gradable meanings: “The weather was absolutely beautiful) c. Static vs. dynamic i. Static adjectives (tall, old)
  17. Inherent or permanent characteristics
  18. Tend to be used attributively  “a tall woman”
  1. Cannot be used in progressive constructions (*she is being tall) ii. Dynamic adjectives:
  2. Describe temporary of transient features (sleepy, foolish)
  3. Commonly used predicatively
  4. Can be used in progressive constructions (“You are being foolish”) and imperatives (“don’t be foolish) because of their temporary condition
  5. Distribution [according to their position] a. Central vs. Marginal i. Central adjectives: used in all positions (attributive, predicative, postpositive) and take inflection  light, lighter, lightest ii. Marginal adjectives: cannot be used in all positions and do not take inflection (alive) b. Attributive position i. Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive (before the noun) and the predicative (following the verb) positions.
  6. But some are restricted to one positionmain can only be used attributively (the main reason), but not predicatively (*the reason is main) ii. Adjectives that are only attributive (before the noun):
  7. Adjectives that describe relations of time and space (the previous page, my old school)
  8. Adjectival intensifiers and downtoners (mere, sheer, utter, only, previous, main, chief, sole) c. Predicative position i. These adjectives follow the verb. ii. A-prefixed adjectives: Adjectives that are only predicative and can be used only as a complement to linking or copular verb:
  9. Adrift (drifting), aghast (terrified), ajar (slightly open), amiss (incorrect), askew (twisted, crooked), astir (moving, active), awash (flooded), alight d. Postpositive position i. Adjectives that are placed after the head  an individual responsible for this. ii. They are found in:
  10. Set institutionalized expressions (president elect, times past, court martial, postmaster general, poet laureate)
  11. with indefinite pronouns and adverbs (nothing good, something useful, those responsible)
  12. with a noun accompanied by a superlative attributive adjective (the easiest way possible) iii. They act as brief relative clauses iv. Some postpositive adjectives can also be used attributively (an individual responsible for this is necessary) and predicatively (he is the individual responsible for this) e. Shifted/discontinuous modification i. AdjP. acting as NP modifiers experience shifted premodification  they deviate from the expected word order, if:
  13. The AdjP. contains intensifying adverbs like as or how: (How strange a story!, as nice a gun as mine)
  14. The head of the AdjP is in the comparative degree and is preceded by no, much, and far (a far cheaper book). Although in this case the traditional order is also possible. f. Order of adjectives i. Adjectives tend to follow a specific order before the noun. Adjectives referring to one’s opinion normally precede those more factual ones and, within these, adjectives denoting size and shape appear before adjectives describing age, color, origin, material, and purpose, in this order.
  15. The structure and syntactic function of the AdjP. a. Modifiers of AdjP.

i. Certain adjectives are used to denote a class by describing one of the attributes of the class  the poor (class with similar financial status)  the old, the sich, the wealthy, the blind, the innocent ii. Nationalities:

  1. A major subclass of nominal adjectives refers to nationalities: the French, the British, the Japanese
  2. Not all nationalities have corresponding nominal adjectives (Spaniards!). Many are denotes by plural proper nouns: the Germans, the Poles iii. Nominal adjectives do not refer exclusively to classes of people.  the opposite, the contrary, the good iv. Comparative and superlative forms can also be nominal adjectives:
  3. The best is yet to come
  4. The elder of the two
  5. The most important of them v. Traits:
  6. They share some characteristics with nouns: a. Preceded by a determiner (usually finite article the) b. Can be modified by adjectives (the unfortunate poor)
  7. They share some traits with adjectives: a. They are gradable b. Many can take comparative and superlative forms
  8. Nominal adjectives have to be plural
  9. Nominal adjective don’t have possessives d. Participial/verbal adjectives i. Traits:
  10. Take –ed, -ing, and –en endings
  11. Can be used attributively and predicatively
  12. Subjected to gradability a. How to distinguish between –ing adjectives from participial modifiers (rising prices): i. If it can be graded or intensified with very , we consider it a participial adjective (a very horrifying story); otherwise, it is a participial modifier (*A very sleeping child) ii. Compound adjectives
  13. Noun + adjective: tax-free
  14. Derterminative + noun: All-American
  15. Number + noun: two-year-old
  16. Adverb + participle: well-balanced, tight-fisted
  17. Adverb + adverb: well-off iii. Gradability in adjectives
  18. Gradability alludes to a scale of comparison which characterizes our perception of the entity modified.
  19. 3 points of view: equality – superiority – inferiority. These degrees correspond to: a. Absolute forms: describe the lowest point of view (easy task) b. Comparative forms: define its middle point (easier task) c. Superlative forms: depict its highest point (easiest task)
  20. Absolute forms like (as…as) are used to express equality of a property of an entity in relation to another. But degrees of superiority and inferiority are conveyed through suffixes (-er, -est), or periphrastically (more, most, less, least).
  21. Amplifiers like quite, very, etc. suggest a superior degree of a quality possessed by an entity.
  22. Downtoners like slightly and hardly express an inferior degree of such quality e. Comparative and superlative (review!)

i. Comparative ending –er can be applied to one-syllable adjectives or two-syllable adjectives ending in: -y, -es, -ow, -le

  1. Meaning (semantic classes) of adjectives a. Types of meanings/semantic classes for adjectives: i. Inherent characteristics: ever-lasting qualities ii. Transient characteristics: changing (hungry) iii. Relations between entities: require complements (aware of, fond of) iv. Entities in terms of their actions: generous v. Classify entities into types: wooden spoon, Swedish films b. Gradable vs. non gradable i. Gradable: adjectives that denote scalar properties (cold) 1. They can be pre-modified by degree expressions (usually adverb phrases) ii. Non gradable or absolute adjectives: describe categorical properties, properties that cannot be possessed in grades (unique, sole, rare) iii. Cross-classification of gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
  2. Although adjectives can be classified as gradable or non-gradable, they can be used (often with a semantic shift) as members of the other class. a. non-gradable adjective is pre-modified as if it were gradable: “They were very Scottish” b. Gradable treated as if non-gradable, pre-modified by items associated with non-gradable meanings: “The weather was absolutely beautiful) c. Static vs. dynamic i. Static adjectives (tall, old) 1. Inherent or permanent characteristics 2. Tend to be used attributively  “a tall woman” 3. Cannot be used in progressive constructions (*she is being tall) ii. Dynamic adjectives:
  3. Describe temporary of transient features (sleepy, foolish)
  4. Commonly used predicatively
  5. Can be used in progressive constructions (“You are being foolish”) and imperatives (“don’t be foolish) because of their temporary condition
  6. Distribution [according to their position] a. Central vs. Marginal i. Central adjectives: used in all positions (attributive, predicative, postpositive) and take inflection  light, lighter, lightest ii. Marginal adjectives: cannot be used in all positions and do not take inflection (alive) b. Attributive position i. Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive (before the noun) and the predicative (following the verb) positions. 1. But some are restricted to one positionmain can only be used attributively (the main reason), but not predicatively (*the reason is main) ii. Adjectives that are only attributive (before the noun):
  7. Adjectives that describe relations of time and space (the previous page, my old school)
  8. Adjectival intensifiers and downtoners (mere, sheer, utter, only, previous, main, chief, sole) c. Predicative position i. These adjectives follow the verb. ii. A-prefixed adjectives: Adjectives that are only predicative and can be used only as a complement to linking or copular verb:
  9. Adrift (drifting), aghast (terrified), ajar (slightly open), amiss (incorrect), askew (twisted, crooked), astir (moving, active), awash (flooded), alight d. Postpositive position i. Adjectives that are placed after the head  an individual responsible for this. ii. They are found in: