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SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Syntactic Functions of Subordinate Clauses In a superordinate clause, subordinate clauses may function as: Subject → That we need a larger computer has become obvious. Direct object → He doesn't know whether to send a gift. Indirect object → You can tell whoever is waiting that I'll be back in ten minutes. Subject complement → One likely result of the postponement is that the cost of constructing the college will be very much higher. Object complement → I know her to be reliable. Adverbial → When you see them, give them my best wishes. In addition, subordinate clauses may function within these elements: Postmodifier in Noun Phrase → Few of the immigrants retained the customs that they had brought with them. Prepositional Complement → It depends on what we decide. Adjectival Complementation → We are happy to see you. FUNCTIONAL CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
- Nominal Clauses That- Clauses → Nominal that- clauses may function as:
- Subject: That the invading troops have been withdrawn has not affected our government's trade sanctions.
- Direct Object: I noticed that he spoke English with an Australian accent.
- Subject Complement: My assumption is that interest rates will soon fall.
- Appositive: Your criticism, that no account has been taken of psychological factors, is fully justified.
- Adjectival Complementation: We are glad that you are able to join us on our wedding anniversary. The subject that- clause is usually extraposed → It has not affected our government's trade sanctions that the invading troops have been withdrawn. When the that- clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed, the conjunction that is frequently omitted except in formal use, leaving a zero that- clause: It's a pity you don't know Russian → But that cannot be omitted in a subject clause or in a nonrestrictive appositive clause, since without the subordinate marker the clause would be initially misinterpreted as a main clause: *You don't know Russian is a pity / Your criticism, no account has been taken of psychological factors, is fully justified.
Wh- Interrogative Clauses → Subordinate wh- interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of functions available to the nominal that- clause:
- Subject: How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
- Direct Object: I can't imagine what they want with your address.
- Subject Complement: The problem is who will water my plants when I am away.
- Appositive: Your original question, why he did not report it to the police earlier, has not yet been answered.
- Adjectival Complementation: I'm not sure which she prefers.
- Prepositional Complement: They did not consult us on whose names should be put forward. These subordinate clauses resemble wh- questions semantically in that they leave a gap of unknown information, represented by the wh- element: I know (that) Caroline will be there – Do you know who will be there? / I'm sure (that) Ted has paid – I'm not sure who has paid. There are also grammatical similarities to independent wh- questions in that the wh- element is placed first. If it is a prepositional phrase, we have the same choices as for the wh- element in wh- questions: I asked them on what they based their predictions (formal) / what they based their predictions on. An infinitive wh- clause (with an obligational sense) can be formed with all wh- words, though instances with why are rare: I don't know what to say (… what I should say.) You must explain to them how to start the motor (… how one/they should start the motor.) I never know who to speak to (… who one/I should speak to.) I'm wondering where to put my coat (… where I should put my coat.) Yes-No and Alternative Interrogative Clauses → Subordinate yes-no interrogative clauses and subordinate alternative interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of functions available to subordinate wh- interrogative clauses, and may include infinitive clauses. The yes-no clause is introduced by the subordinators whether or if : Do you know whether/if the banks are open? The alternative clauses are formed with the correlative whether ...or or if ...or. The subordinator is repeated only if the second unit is a full clause: I can't find out whether/if the flight has been delayed or whether/if it has been cancelled. They didn't say whether it will rain or be sunny. I asked them if they wanted meat or fish. I don't care if they join us or not. Repetition is possible for some speakers with to- infinitive clauses: He didn't tell us whether to wait for him or (whether) to go on without him.
The wh- element may express either a specific meaning (where the -ever suffix is disallowed → I took what was on the kitchen table = … that which was on the kitchen table) or a non-specific meaning (generally indicated by the presence of the -ever suffix → Whoever breaks this law deserves a fine = anyone who breaks this law...) To- Infinitive Clauses → Nominal to- infinitive clauses may function as:
- Subject: To be neutral in this conflict is out of the question.
- Direct Object: He likes to relax.
- Subject Complement: The best excuse is to say that you have an examination tomorrow morning.
- Appositive: Your ambition, to become a farmer, requires the energy and perseverance that you so obviously have.
- Adjectival Complementation: I'm very eager to meet her. Extraposition is usual with subject clauses: It is out of the question to be neutral in this conflict. The presence of a subject in a to- infinitive clause normally requires the presence of a preceding for. When the subject is a pronoun that distinguishes subjective and objective cases, it is in the objective case: For your country to be neutral in this conflict is out of the question. (It is out of the question for your country to be neutral in this conflict. ) For us to take part in the discussion would be a conflict of interest. (It would be a conflict of interest for us to take part in the discussion. ) I'm very eager for them to meet her. When the clause is a direct object, however, for is generally absent before the subject: He likes everyone to relax. The nominal to- infinitive often indicates that its proposition is a possibility or a proposal rather than something fulfilled, and it is then closest semantically to a that- clause with putative should : It's natural for them to be together. It's natural that they should be together. -ing Clauses → Nominal -ing clauses may function as:
- Subject: Watching television keeps them out of mischief.
- Direct Object: He enjoys playing practical jokes.
- Subject Complement: Her first job had been selling computers.
- Appositive: His current research, investigating attitudes to racial stereotypes, takes up most of his time.
- Adjectival Complementation: They are busy preparing a barbecue. If the - ing clause has a subject, the subject may be in the genitive case or it may be in the objective case (for those pronouns having an objective case) or common case (for all other heads of noun phrases):
- GENITIVE: I object to his / Jeremy's receiving an invitation.
- OBJECTIVE: I objected to him / Jeremy receiving an invitation. There is a traditional prescription in favour of the genitive: it is preferred if the subject is a pronoun, the noun phrase has personal reference, and the style is formal. The genitive is also preferred if the subject is initial in the sentence → My forgetting her name was embarrassing. On the other hand, the common case is preferred where the subject is a nonpersonal noun phrase and not a pronoun and the style is not formal → I don't know about the weather being so awful in this area. The genitive is avoided when the noun phrase is lengthy and requires a group genitive → Do you remember the students and teachers protesting against the new rule? A nominal -ing clause may refer to a fact or an action:
- Fact: Your driving a car to New York in your condition disturbs me greatly.
- Action: Your driving a car to New York took longer than I expected. Bare Infinitive Clauses → The most common functions of the nominal bare infinitive clauses are as subject or subject complement in a pseudo-cleft sentence (or a variant of it), where the other subordinate clause has the substitute verb verb 'do':
- Subject: Turn off the tap was all I did.
- Subject Complement: What the plan does is (to) ensure a fair pension for all. (The to of the infinitive is optional when the clause is subject complement) Verbless Clauses → The nominal verbless clause is a more debatable category than the other nominal clauses:
- A friend in need is a friend indeed. (= To be a friend in need is to be a friend indeed. )
- Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is their dream. (= Having wall-to-wall carpets in every room is their dream.)
- Are bicycles wise in heavy traffic? (= Is it wise to have bicycles in heavy traffic ?)
- Adverbial Clauses We can distinguish four broad categories of syntactic functions for adverbials: adjuncts, subjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts. Adverbial clauses, however, function mainly as adjuncts and disjuncts. Clauses of Time → Finite adverbial clauses of time are introduced by such subordinators as after, as, once, since, until, when, while : Buy your ticket as soon as you reach the station.
Clauses of Condition, Concession, and Contrast: There is considerable overlap in adverbial clauses that expresses condition, concession, and contrast. The overlap between the three roles is highlighted by the overlapping use of subordinators: if introduces all three types of clauses and whereas both contrast and concessive clauses. Furthermore, even if expresses both the contingent dependence of one situation upon another and the unexpected nature of this dependence: Even if they offered to pay, I wouldn't accept any money from them. All three types tend to assume initial position in the superordinate clause. Conditional clauses → In general, conditional clauses convey a direct condition in that the situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the conditional clause: If you put the baby down, she'll scream. The most common subordinators for conditional clauses are if and unless , which are also used with nonfinite and verbless clauses. Other conditional subordinators are restricted to finite clauses; for example: given (that), on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), supposing (that). Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains tomorrow. He doesn't mind inconveniencing others just so he's comfortable. You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that you give a month's notice or pay an additional month's rent. In case you want me, I'll be in my office till lunchtime. Given that x=y, then n(x+a)=n(y+a) must also be true. Assuming that the movie starts at eight , shouldn't we be leaving now? Unless otherwise instructed, you should leave by the back exit. Marion wants me to type the letter if possible. If not, I can discuss the matter with you now. Open and hypothetical condition → A direct condition may be either an open condition or a hypothetical condition. Open conditions are neutral: they leave unresolved the question of the fulfilment or nonfulfilment of the condition, and hence also the truth of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause: If Colin is in London, he is undoubtedly staying at the Hilton. The sentence leaves unresolved whether Colin is in London, and hence it leaves unresolved whether he is staying at the Hilton. A hypothetical condition, on the other hand, conveys the speaker's belief that the condition will not be fulfilled (for future conditions), is not fulfilled (for present conditions), or was not fulfilled (for past conditions) and hence the probable or certain falsity of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause: If he changed his options, he'd be a more likeable person. They would be here with us if they had the time.
If you had listened to me, you wouldn't have made so many mistakes. The conditional clauses in these sentences convey the following implications: He very probably won't change his opinions. They presumably don't have the time. You certainly didn't listen to me. Rhetorical clauses → Rhetorical conditional clauses give the appearance of expressing an open condition, but (like rhetorical questions) they actually make a strong assertion. There are two types: (a) If the proposition in the matrix clause is patently absurd, the proposition in the conditional clause is shown to be false: If they're Irish, I'm the Pope. (Since I'm obviously not the Pope, they're certainly not Irish.) If you believe that, you'll believe anything. (You certainly can't believe that.) (b) If the proposition in the conditional clause (which contains measure expressions) is patently true, the proposition in the matrix clause is shown to be true. The if- clause is positioned finally: He's ninety if he's a day. (If you'll agree that he's at least a day old, perhaps you'll take my word that he's ninety.) The package weighed ten pounds if it weighed an ounce. (The package certainly weighed ten pounds.) Concessive clauses → Concessive clauses are introduced chiefly by although or its more informal variant though. Other subordinators include while, whereas (formal), and even if : Although he had just joined, he was treated exactly like all the others. No goals were scored, though it was an exciting game. While I don't want to make a fuss, I feel I must protest at your inference. Whereas the amendment is enthusiastically supported by a large majority in the Senate, its fate is doubtful in the House. Except for whereas, these subordinators may introduce -ing, -ed, and verbless clauses (eg Though well over eighty, she can walk faster than I can). Concessive clauses indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one might expect in view of the situation in the concessive clause. It is often possible to view each situation as unexpected in the light of the other and therefore to choose which should be made subordinate: No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game. It was an exciting game, although no goals were scored.
He's thin because he hasn't eaten enough. (cause and effect) She watered the flowers because they were dry. (reason and consequence) You'll help me because you're my friend. (motivation and result) Since the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned. (circumstance and consequence) Reason clauses are most commonly introduced by the subordinators because and since. Other subordinators include as, for (somewhat formal), and (with circumstantial clauses) seeing (that) : I lent him the money because he needed it. As Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others. Since we live near the sea, we often go sailing. Much has been written about physic phenomena, for they pose fascinating problems that have yet to be resolved. Seeing that it is about to rain, we had better leave now. A for- clause must be in final position. Purpose Clauses → Purpose clauses are usually infinitival, and may be introduced by in order to (formal) and so as to : Students should take notes (so as) to make revision easier. The committee agreed to adjourn (in order) to reconsider the matter when fuller information became available. They left the door open (in order) for me to hear the baby. Finite clauses of purpose are introduced by so that or (less commonly and more informally) by so, and (more formally) by in order that : The school closes earlier so (that) the children can get home before dark. The jury and the witnesses were removed from the court in order that they might not hear the arguments of the lawyers on the prosecution's motion for an adjournment. These finite clauses, which are putative, require a modal auxiliary. Result Clauses → Result clauses are introduced by the subordinators so that and so : We paid him immediately so (that) he left contented. I took no notice of him, so (that) he flew into a rage. The subordinators are used for purpose clauses but, because they are putative rather than factual, purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary: We paid him immediately, so (that) he would leave contented. Clauses of Similarity and Comparison → For both similarity clauses and comparison clauses, there is a semantic blend with manner if the verb is dynamic. Clauses of similarity are introduced by as and like. These subordinators are commonly premodified by just and exactly : Please do (exactly) as I said.
It was (just) like I imagined it would be. Clauses of comparison are introduced by as if, as though, and like : She looks as if she's getting better. If the comparison is hypothetical (implying lack of reality), a subjunctive or hypothetical past may be used as an alternative: She treated me as though I was/were/had been a stranger. The subordinators as, as if, and as though can introduce nonfinite and verbless clauses: Fill in the application form as instructed. You should discuss the company with him as though unaware that you were being considered for a job. As if and as though may also introduce to- infinitive clauses: She winked at me as if to say that I shouldn't say anything. Clauses of Proportion → Proportional clauses involve a kind of comparison. They express a proportionality or equivalence of tendency or degree between two situations. They may be introduced by as, with or without correlative so (formal), or by the fronted correlative the... the followed by comparative forms: As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated. As the lane got narrower, (so) the overhanging branches made it more difficult for us to keep sight of our quarry. The more she thought about it, the less she liked it. Noncorrelative the is also used in the same sense: She liked it less, the more she thought about it. Clauses of Preference → Clauses of preference are usually nonfinite. They may be introduced by the subordinators rather than and sooner than , with the bare infinitive as the verb of the clause: Rather than go there by air, I'd take the slowest train. (I'd prefer to take the slowest train.) They'll fight to the finish sooner than surrender. (They prefer to fight to the finish). The same subordinators may introduce finite clauses: Rather than (that) she should miss her train, I'll get the car over. Comment Clauses → Comment clauses are parenthetical disjuncts. They may occur initially, finally, or medially, and thus generally have a separate tone unit: KINGston, / as you probably KNOW, / is the capital of JaMAIca./ We distinguish the following types: (I) like the matrix clause of a main clause: There were no other applicants, I believe, for that job.
Comparisons of equivalence, nonequivalence, and excess are nonassertive, as can be seen from the use in them of nonassertive forms: She works as hard as / harder than she ever did. He eats vegetables as much as / more than any other food. Clause Functions of the Comp-Element → The comp-element of a comparative construction can be any of the clause elements, apart from the verb:
- Subject: More people use this brand than (use) any other window-cleaning fluid.
- Direct object: She knows more history than most people (know).
- Indirect object: That toy has given more children happiness than any other (toy) (has).
- Subject complement: Lionel is more relaxed than he used to be.
- Object complement: She thinks her children more obedient than (they were) last year.
- Adverbial: You've been working much harder than I (have).
- Prepositional complement: She's applied for more jobs than Joyce (has [applied for]). The same range is available for the comp-element in comparisons of equivalence; for example: As many people use this brand as (use) any other window-cleaning fluid. Ellipsis in Comparative Clauses → Ellipsis of a part of the comparative clause is likely to occur when that part is a repetition of something in the matrix clause. Since it is normal for the two clauses to be closely parallel both in structure and content, ellipsis is the rule rather than the exception in comparative constructions. James and Susan often go to plays but
- (I) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys the theatre.
- (II) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys it. (substitution by pronouns)
- (III) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan does. (substitution by pro-predicate)
- (IV) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan. (substitution by pro-predication)
- (V) James enjoys the theatre more. (ellipsis) Ellipsis of the object generally cannot take place unless the main verb too is ellipted, as in (III) and (IV), where there is a choice between the retention of an operator and its omission: *James knows more about the theatre than Susan knows. The comp-element is the hinge between the matrix clause and the comparative clause. Since the comp-element specifies the standard of comparison, the same standard cannot be specified again in the comparative clause: *Jane is healthier than her sister is healthy. *James enjoys the theatre more than Susan much enjoys the theatre.
The standards of comparison in the two clauses may, however, be different: Mary is cleverer than Jane is pretty. Partial contrasts → If the two clauses in a comparison differed solely in the comp-element ( *I hear it more clearly than I hear it ), the comparison would of course be nonsensical; therefore, a contrast of at least one variable is required between the two clauses. The contrast may affect only tense or the addition of a modal auxiliary. In such cases it is normal to omit the rest of the comparative clause after the auxiliary: I hear it more clearly than I did. (than I used to hear it) I get up later than I should. (than I should get up) If the contrast lies only in tense, it may be expressed in the comparative clause solely by an adverbial: She'll enjoy it more than (she enjoyed it) last year. This provides the basis for the total ellipsis of the subordinate clause in examples like: You are slimmer (than you were). You're looking better (than you were [looking]). Enough and Too → There are comparative constructions that express the contrasting notions of sufficiency and excess, chiefly with enough and too followed by a to- infinitive clause. Paraphrase pairs may be constructed with antonymous items: They're rich enough to own a car. The book is simple enough to understand. They're not too poor to own a car. The book is not too difficult to understand. If the context allows, the infinitive clause may be omitted. The negative force of too is shown in the use of nonassertive forms. Contrast: She's old enough to do some work. She's too old to do any work. The infinitive clause may contain an overt subject: It moves too quickly for most people to see (it). He was old enough for us to talk to (him) seriously. When there is no subject in the infinitive clause, it is identified with the superordinate subject or with an indefinite subject: She writes quickly enough to finish the paper on time. (for her to finish the paper on time) He was old enough to talk to him seriously. (for others to talk to him seriously) And there may be ambiguity as to which identification to make: She was too young to date. (… to date others or for others to date her)
