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D265 Guided Notes on Critical Thinking, Exams of English Literature

Harvard UniversityEnglish Literature

D265 Guided Notes on Critical Thinking

Typology: Exams

2022/2023

Available from 08/01/2023

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D265 Guided Notes on
Critical Thinking
Section 1
• Define “proposition”:
oPropositions are statements that can be true or false.
oA sentence and a proposition are not the same.
• Define “non-proposition”:
oNon-propositions are not statements about matters of
fact. They
do not make a claim that can be true or false.
oThey cannot be true or false.
• Complete the following exercises:
oCategorize each of the following as a proposition or a
non-
proposition.
▪ Let’s go get lunch. Non Proposition
▪ Lunch is the most important meal of the day.
Proposition
▪ How much did the lunch cost? Non Proposition
▪ Lunch is not the most important meal
of the day.Proposition
▪ While there are many places that we could go for
lunch, given that you are a vegetarian, we should
go to that café on the corner. Proposition
▪ Make sure you get enough to eat. Non proposition
• Define “simple proposition”:
oThey have no internal logical structure. They are simply
true or
false on their own.
• Define “complex proposition”:
oThey have an internal logical structure. They are true or
false
depending on whether their parts are true or false.
• Complete the following exercises:
oBreak each complex proposition down into its simple
propositions.
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D265 Guided Notes on

Critical Thinking

Section 1

  • Define “proposition”: o Propositions are statements that can be true or false. o A sentence and a proposition are not the same.
  • Define “non-proposition”: o Non-propositions are not statements about matters of fact. They do not make a claim that can be true or false. o They cannot be true or false.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Categorize each of the following as a proposition or a non- proposition. ▪ Let’s go get lunch. Non Proposition ▪ Lunch is the most important meal of the day. Proposition ▪ How much did the lunch cost? Non Proposition ▪ Lunch is not the most important meal of the day.Proposition ▪ While there are many places that we could go for lunch, given that you are a vegetarian, we should go to that café on the corner. Proposition ▪ Make sure you get enough to eat. Non proposition
  • Define “simple proposition”: o They have no internal logical structure. They are simply true or false on their own.
  • Define “complex proposition”: o They have an internal logical structure. They are true or false depending on whether their parts are true or false.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Break each complex proposition down into its simple propositions.

▪ I am hungry, and I want to go to lunch. ▪ I am Hungry. ▪ I want to go to lunch.

  • Define “conclusion”: o A statement/proposition that is supported by an argument’s premises.
  • Complete the following exercises: Yellow=Premise Green=Conclusion o Separate each argument into its premises and conclusion. ▪ We need to eat more apples. After all, the doc told me that apples are healthy, and it is smart to eat healthy things. ▪ If we need to eat more apples, then we have to go to the grocery store. If we have to go to the grocery store, then I will need to borrow your car. We need to eat more apples, therefore I will need to borrow your car.
  • Define “deductive argument”: o An argument that guarantees that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
  • Define “inductive argument”: o Are arguments from analogy, authority, causal inferences, scientific hypothetical reasoning, etc.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Categorize each of the following arguments as deductive or inductive. ▪ The sun has risen every morning that I have been alive. Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow. Deductive ▪ 72% of survey respondents liked the apples. From this, we can infer that the majority of Americans like these apples. Inductive ▪ If someone eats apples, then they will be healthy. Bo eats apples. Therefore, Bo will be healthy. Deductive ▪ All Americans like apples. Bo is an American. Therefore, Bo likes apples. deductive
  • Define “valid”: A deductive argument is valid if o The premises guarantee the conclusion.
  • Define “sound”: A deductive argument is sound if o The argument is valid and has true premises.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Say whether each argument is valid or invalid and whether it is sound or unsound. ▪ All fruit smells nice. An orange is a fruit. Therefore oranges smell nice. Valid and Sound ▪ An orange is a fruit. An orange smells nice. Therefore all fruit smells nice. Invalid and unsound ▪ A square has four sides. Four is more than three. A triangle has three sides. Therefore, a square has more sides than a triangle. Valid and Sound ▪ A square has five sides. Five is more than three. A triangle has three sides. Therefore, a square has more sides than a triangle. valid and unsound
  • Define “strong”: An inductive argument is strong if o The premises make the conclusion probably true.
  • Define “cogent”: An inductive argument is cogent if o The premises are all true and give strong inductive support for the conclusion.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Say whether each argument is strong or weak and whether it is cogent or uncogent. ▪ The sun has risen every morning that I have been alive. Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow. Strong and Cogent ▪ Oranges have vitamins. Therefore all fruit has vitamins. Weak and cogent ▪ The first few survey respondents liked the apples. Therefore the majority of Americans will
  • Define “formal fallacy”: o An argument with a defect in its form. “Structure”
  • Define “informal fallacy”: o An argument with a defect in its content. “Content”
  • Define “affirming the consequent.” Is it formal or informal? Why? o Is when the consequent is said to be true. o Formal Fallacy because the structure is good.
  • Define “denying the antecedent.” Is it formal or informal? Why? o In a standard, if/then premise, the antecedent is made not true. o Formal Fallacy because the argument will have a bad deductive structure.
  • Define the “fallacy fallacy.” Is it formal or informal? Why? o When someone assumes that if an argument contains a logical fallacy, then its conclusion must be false. o Informal because the arguments have problems with their content.
  • Complete the following exercises: o Categorize each of the following as affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, the fallacy fallacy, or not a fallacy: ▪ “My opponent argues that we should increase bus ticket prices, but they use a slippery slope argument. Since their argument is flawed, I conclude that their conclusion must be false and that we should not increase bus ticket prices.” The Fallacy Fallacy ▪ “If someone is Canadian, then they love maple syrup. Mat is not Canadian. Therefore he does not love maple syrup.” Denying the Antecedent ▪ “If someone is Canadian, then they love maple syrup. Mat does not love maple syrup. Therefore, Mat is not a Canadian.” Denying the consequent? ▪ “If someone is Canadian, then they love maple

syrup. Mat loves maple syrup. Therefore, Mat is a Canadian.” Affirming the consequent

▪ Be skeptical and consider whether the claims are plausible. o Is it convenient? ▪ If it fits too neatly with a particular narrative about current events, society, or something similar, then it might be too convenient to be true. o Is it a deepfake? ▪ The more outrageous or convenient an argument or information is, the more skeptical we should be that it is a genuine video.

Section 3

  • Define the “principle of charity”: o Interpreting the argument in the best possible light. (understanding) ▪ Example: Shae said, “It seems that the earth is flat.” Shae must meant that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
  • What is the benefit of following the principle of charity?: o To let the arguer, know that you understand their position and why someone might believe it, you open the door to a more honest and open dialogue that allows for more understanding of each other’s viewpoints.
  • Define “cognitive bias”: o This means the way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. (Jump into conclusions)
  • Define “heuristic”: o It means a rule that does not always work but gets us where we need to go most of the time. (Rule of thumb, a strategy, or a shortcut) ▪ Example: If a badger bites onto your leg, throw it in the river. If a pinecone gets caught in your fur, throw it in the river.

o Rather than spend all the time and energy it takes to make the best decision, we can use a heuristic to make a pretty good decision.

  • Define “confirmation bias”: o It is the natural tendency to seek evidence supporting our beliefs and ignore the evidence that is in the way of our beliefs. o It confirms what I already believe
  • Define “representativeness bias”: o This means that when we are faced with a new situation, we find the nearest prototype in our mind and use what we know about that prototype to help us understand what is going on. ▪ Example: If you see someone walk into a bank with a ski mask, then you look through your memories to see what most closely resembles the current situation before you settle on the prototypical bank robbery.
  • Define “anchoring and adjustment bias”: o We tend to anchor to the first piece of information we have about a new domain, and then only adjust up or down from there. o Mainly dealing with Sales. ▪ Example: Do you think more than 3 million or fewer than 3 million people live in Wyoming? ▪ You probably guessed 1 or 4 million, but not guessed 300,000 or 300 million.
  • Define “availability bias”: o Is when the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is objectively true. ▪ Example: Reading of frequent dog attacks by breeds such as pit bulls and rottweilers, this information becomes immediately available in your mind when you see one of these breeds and your mind goes to thinking the dog might attack.
  • Define “selection bias”:
  • Complete the following exercises. o For each scenario, explain what kind of bias is being demonstrated: ▪ A survey is handed out at a baseball game asking participants to rank sports in terms of how entertaining they are. In the survey results, the majority of people choose baseball as the most entertaining sport. From this, Ana concludes that the majority of Americans find baseball to be the most entertaining sport. ▪ Selection ▪ Barney is trading in a car. The dealer offers Barney $300 for his car. That sounds low, so Barney rejects the offer. The dealer offers $400. That seems generous to Barney. Anchoring ▪ Claire is trying to decide where to go on vacation. She considers going to the beach. But the first thing that comes to mind is a scary story she heard about someone being stung by a jellyfish on the beach. Claire concludes that the beach is not a safe option. Availability ▪ Don meets an old man wearing a sweater on the street asking for a large sum of money to fix his car. Because this old man seems grandfatherly, Don trusts him. Representativeness ▪ Ellen thinks that American cars are the best cars. She reads multiple independent studies showing problems with American cars. Ellen ignores these studies because they conflict with her belief. Confirmation
  • Distinguish “system 1 thinking” and “system 2 thinking”:

uses the popularity as a basis for inferring that the conclusion is true.

▪ Example: The popularity of a person might be used to exonerate them from a crime.

  • Define the “appeal to consequences fallacy”: o Consists in the mistake of trying to assess the truth of an idea based on the consequences of accepting that idea.
  • Define the “equivocation fallacy”: o When there is a problem word that is used as figuratively in one premise and used literally in another premise. ▪ Example: Children are a HEADACHE. Aspirin will make HEADACHES go away. Therefore, aspirin will make children go away.
  • Complete the following exercises: o For each argument, say which fallacy of relevance it exemplifies or that it is “no fallacy.” Explain why. ▪ “You should agree with my view on this, because if you don’t, I will break your knees.” - Appeal to force fallacy ▪ “That view has to be correct because lots of people believe it.” - Appeal to popularity fallacy ▪ “My opponent has argued that we should ban phones from school. But he is an old grump, so we shouldn’t take his argument seriously.” - Ad Hominem fallacy ▪ “The sign up there says that this store will give you a free mouse with your laptop purchase. But I don’t have the time to take care of a pet right now, so I don’t think this deal is valuable to me.” - Equivocation fallacy ▪ “92% of the people in our random survey of Seattle residents said that they enjoyed coffee. It is safe to conclude that most Seattle residents enjoy coffee.” - ▪ “I know that Lincoln makes the best cars because Matthew McConaughey said so in a commercial.” - Appeal to popularity fallacy

multiple review articles concluding there is no link between the two must have been bought and paid for by vaccine providers.

  • Define the “post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy”: o Is committed when someone claims some event causes another just because the first event occurs before the second event.
  • Define the “hasty generalization fallacy”: o Is when one generalizes about a group of people or things or events, but one does so too quickly and without enough evidence.
  • Complete the following exercises: o For each argument, say which fallacy of weak induction it exemplifies or whether it is “no fallacy”: ▪ “I met two Texans who love BBQ. Therefore, all Texans love BBQ.” - ▪ “Mat is a Texan. Texans are great at BBQ. Therefore, Mat is great at BBQ.” - Appeal to ignorance fallacy ▪ “If we go to Texas, then we might fall in love with the state. If we fall in love with the state, then we might want to move there. If we move there, then we might not be able to afford it. We can’t afford to move. Therefore, we can’t even go to Texas for a short visit.” - Slippery slope fallacy ▪ “If you only look at the 5-star reviews of my BBQ restaurant, you will find very happy customers. Therefore we have great service.” - Texas sharpshooter fallacy ▪ “After that BBQ restaurant opened in the neighborhood, the weather has been terrible. I think that restaurant opening ruined the nice weather.” - Post Hoc Fallacy ▪ “We can’t be absolutely certain that opening a restaurant is a bad idea. Therefore, it must be a good idea.”