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Connected practices
An introduction to East Asian religions
Adam Yuet Chan
Why study Chinese religion?
Chan offers and suggests an alternative approach to religions and philosophies. We Westerners are accustomed to a theological and theoretical approach to religion , often assuming that all religions can be understood in this way. However, this approach is not applicable to Chinese religions. We need to change how we engage with East Asian religions. This change involves shifting from : The primacy of doctrine to the primacy of practice. Isolation to connectedness. This new approach should emphasize the importance of connections and relations both between and within religious traditions , rather than isolating them from one another. We need to shift from an isolationist paradigm to a connected paradigm
Questions to avoid when approaching East Asian religions:
How many religions are there in China?
Which is the most common religion in China?
What do Chinese people believe in?
FIRST MISCONCEPTION that religions are countable and discrete entities , distinguishable from
one another, with specific doctrines and ideas. In reality, outside the framework of the Abrahamic religions , this is not the case. Beginning an investigation with such questions makes it difficult, if not impossible, to properly study Asian religions. SUBSTANTIVE APPROACH TO RELIGIONS The first step is to abandon a substantive approach to religion, as if religions were clearly definable entities or discrete objects. This approach dates back to Socratic times , where the goal of philosophical inquiry was to grasp the essence of things. We tend to approach the problem of religion in the same way we approach abstract concepts like beauty or truth, attempting to provide a substantial definition. When studying religions, we ask: “What is religion?”
Several underlying assumptions The identity assumption : We assume that there are clearly defined, isolated, and discrete entities that can be quantified and distinctly named (e.g., Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism). The centrality of doctrine : The belief that doctrine—such as the words of the founder, their writings, and the theological interpretations and rationalizations that follow—constitutes the most important aspect of religion. Exclusivity : We assume that being religious means adhering to only one God, one faith, one philosophy, or one religious institution. Religion as an interior and private matter : Religions are viewed as private, resulting from individual choice. Ethical and social engagement : It is often presumed that true religion must involve social and ethical responsibility, with active engagement in the public good. True religion vs. magic : Religion is seen as being opposed to magic or superstition. "True religion" is considered morally superior to "false" beliefs, which are often perceived as fulfilling lower, more material needs.
The Japanese Case: Kamakura Buddhism
During the Kamakura period, many "new schools" of Buddhism began to emerge, including:
- Zen
- Nichiren School
- Pure Land Buddhism (Amidism) This so-called " new Buddhism " ( shinbukkō ) is often portrayed as a reformist movement that arose in response to the previous corruption of earlier Buddhist groups. The groups appeared in this period were highlighted (by modern Japanese scholars) for their peculiar doctrines and novelty of the message. These "new schools" have been interpreted as isolated from one another due to their distinctive and reformed doctrines. The prevailing notion is that a different doctrine signifies a different group or subgroup. These interpretations have been influenced by assumptions derived from a European approach to religions ( protestant vs. catholic). However, historically and socially, the "new Buddhism" was not different from the "old" one. According to Kuroda Toshio , they formed a “system of exoteric and esoteric Buddhism”. These "new religious schools" have often been characterized as: **- Against previous traditions
- Closer to the common people
- More democratic**
Relations lie at the heart of every aspect of Chinese society , including the religious realm : religion is never a private matter. In Chinese culture, there is no sharp distinction between relationships with family, society, and spirits; the difference lies only in the types of relationships. The rules and norms observed in social and political life in China can also be extended to relationships with spirits and god.
Chan’s definition of religion
What Is Religion?
Any form of interaction with spirits, be they God, gods, ancestors, ghosts, or evil spirits.
True religion vs. Magic superstition
Some western scholars will look upon some of the Chinese religious practices as "magic," or "superstition," not belonging to the category of “religion”. However, this kind of distinction between “proper religion” and “primitive magic” is a product of western biases that privilege particular “modalities of doing religion”. Some religious traditions are believed to be “higher” on an imagined evolutionary trajectory of religions , denigrating those that are supposedly less institutionalized , less systematic , more “ritualistic ,” therefore “primitive” and “lower”. Chan’s way of defining religion overcomes the juxtaposition between religion and magic superstition; since religion is any form of interaction with any kind of supernatural entities.
Religion and magic
Juxtaposition between “ true religion” and “false religion” or magic. True religions are those considered to be a matter of inner faith that had to radiate outward , allowing interiority to manifest itself in exteriority. In magic, exteriority was the only dimension involved. A magical approach views practice as merely a means to gain worldly benefits , rather than as an expression of inner faith. The sole aim of “false” believers was to achieve earthly and selfish advantages , rather than the salvation of the soul.
Japanese case In Japan, the American Protestant conception of religion served as the model upon which the government, during the modernization period – known as the Meiji era (1868-1911) – constructed the religious system of the new nation. "Religion" ( shūkyō ) in Japan is a modern word. From the Meiji period (1868-1911) on, it was adopted in the effort to modernize the country's religious situation. This led to a very deep change of the religious landscape in Japan:
**- Separation of the cults of deities (kami) and Buddhas.
- Creation of** Shintō **as a state cult
- Suppression of rural semi-official cults
- Change of attitude toward earthy profits** Many popular cults were disbanded and prohibited, and Buddhism was briefly but intensely persecuted because it was considered part of the old regime. Buddhism was also separated from local deity cults , which were reorganized under the banner of the newly established Shintō (state cult). Shintō was considered to be the original religion in Japan prior to Buddhism (this is just an invention)
DO THE SPIRITS EXIST?
If religion in China is any form of interaction with spirits – must we believe that the spirits exist? Presuppositions underlying this question:
- The first presupposition behind this question is that faith or believing is the central point in all religions all over the world and that taking part in a ritual implies that participants all believe in the theology implied.
- The second presupposition is assuming that supernatural existence is fundamental for religion. In European religions, the existence or non-existence of God has always been a central topic of discussion. However, in East Asian religions, the real question is not whether spirits exist or not, nor is it about the content of faith itself. 3. The third presupposition is the relevance of doctrine/ texts /exegesis. In East Asian religions , faith is seen as a disposition that operates independently of doctrine. A much more important role is assigned to involvement in religious practices , r egardless of one's beliefs , and to the relationships that arise from such practices.
Self-Orientalism refers to the phenomenon where individuals or groups within an Asian or Oriental culture adopt and perpetuate the stereotypes and characteristics imposed by Western Orientalism. This often involves internalizing and replicating the simplistic, exoticized, or reductive views o f their own culture that were originally created by Western observers.
Diverse Approaches to Studying Religion in China
Five main academic disciplines have contributed to the study of religion in China:
- Statistic
- Religious Studies (exegesis and philosophy of religions)
- History of religion
- Sociology of religion
- Political Science
- Anthropology.
Among the Different Disciplines
Political Science, Statistics, and Sociology utilize quantitative data. Religious Studies, Theology, Philosophy, and Exegesis rely predominantly on textual and doctrinal analysis. These groups both start from limited premises (quantitative data or doctrine) They lack an approach to more complex, less defined phenomena. Two other disciplines have more possibilities: History of Religions and Anthropology
Statistics
Statistics is a quantitative science, based on data. We want to answer questions about the number of religions in China or the percentage of how much those religions have spread. Problem: Many countries are characterized more by non- confessional kinds of religiosity (e.g. China, India, Japan, etc.). Religiosity is not based upon a denominational model or exclusive affiliation to certain clearly defined religious groups. As long as statistics is based upon data it is highly implausible that data can picture correctly the religious situation in China.
RELIGIOUS STUDIES
Religious Studies focus on the study of religious teachings, beliefs, and doctrines , primarily through the examination of religious texts. Doctrinal content is the main concern. These texts , especially those regarded as " canonical ," hold foundational importance within their respective religious traditions and also for those studies. Key areas of focus include:
**- Doctrines
- Sacred texts
- Religious thinkers
- Schools of thought** This approach treats religions as coherent systems of thought, shaping Western understandings of non- Abrahamic religions (Buddhism, Daoism, and Hinduism) Non-Abrahamic traditions have often been interpreted in a manner similar to Abrahamic religions , with a focus on identifying core theological propositions and key sacred texts. As a result, we tend to assume that non-Abrahamic religions possess their own set of theological ideas , leading to questions such as: “What does Buddhism say about...?” “What are the main Buddhist ideas?” “Which are the key-concepts in this sacred text?” However, this view often contrasts with how these religions are actually practiced, lived or experienced in East Asia Religious studies have recently begun to focus on “ lived religion ,” fostering a deeper connection with anthropology and broadening the understanding of how religions are practiced in everyday life. Religious studies have initiated a discussion about the history of critical interpretations of these religions.
HISTORY OF RELIGION
In this approach, religions are analyzed as historical phenomena , recognizing that they are subject to change over time. The history of religion is based on the idea that religious practices and beliefs are not static but evolve throughout history. History of religion emphasizes the temporal development and transformation of religious traditions. It addresses questions such as:
- How did religions develop in China?
Colonial rulers needed to understand the natives to prevent riots and establish better governance of the territory. Anthropologists as counsellors had to learn how to understand. Anthropologists were scholars who served as advisors to colonial governments to improve the administration of native populations. Since the natives did not organize their knowledge and way of life in written form, anthropologists had to live among them , learn their languages, and observe their practices. Emic comprehension and participating observation. To gather qualitative data, researchers needed to become familiar with a group of individuals and their practices and beliefs through deep involvement in the cultural environment they were studying.
Five modalities of doing religion
In the long history of religious development in China, different ways of "doing religion" evolved and cohered into 5 easy-to-identify styles or "modalities." 5 modalities of doing religion in China:
1. SCRIPTURAL-DISCURSIVE MODALITY : Involves the composition and use of texts and encompasses all practices related to texts. 2. PERSONAL-CULTIVATIONAL MODALITY : Involves a long-term focus on cultivating and transforming oneself, encompassing practices connected with self-transformation and self-care. 3. LITURGICAL MODALITY : Involves elaborate ritual procedures conducted by ritual specialists. 4. IMMEDIATE-PRACTICAL MODALITY : Aims for quick results using simple ritual or magical techniques, encompassing practices that seek immediate gain. 5. RELATIONAL MODALITY : Emphasizes the relationships between humans and deities (or ancestors), as well as among humans, within religious practices. This framework should be seen as an alternative to the denominational, substantive or confessional approach to religions. Rather than discussing of Buddhism , Taoism , etc., it is more accurate to speak of different ways of doing religion. Chinese religiosity is much more about practice , effectiveness , instrumentality , and opportunity than about orthodoxy , beliefs and doctrines. Instead of worrying about orthodoxy or denomination or affiliation , common people in China choose their religious practices according to local customs , social environment , personal character , types of religious offer in the local ritual market , etc.
These modalities are ideal types , which means in real life they can overlap, mix together, influence each other in ways that depend on many different factors.
The scriptural-discursive modality
It’s the modality of great traditions (vs. little traditions) which requires the use of " great texts " – (canons, classics, sutras, scriptures, etc.). This modality often requires a high level of literacy and an inclination for philosophical and "theological" thinking. Typical practices include compiling texts , elaborating discourses , preaching, reading, discussing, debating, translating, and commenting on sacred texts. For a long time in Europe, there was a prejudice that Chinese religions were a form of esoteric tradition transmitted through texts , seen as repositories of Oriental wisdom. Chan is not suggesting that texts and doctrines are unimportant in Chinese religions, but rather that they are only one of many aspects to consider. These texts and doctrines in Chinese religion serve as preparatory tools for practices aimed at self- transformation or salvation.
The personal-cultivational modality
This modality presupposes a long-term interest in cultivating and transforming oneself. The key words in this modality are " to cultivate " and " to craft" oneself. Es. Meditation, exercises, recitation of texts, qigong , prayers, acts of charity, internal and external alchemy, physical practices. The goals of this transformation and cultivation are different in each religious tradition (immortality, nirvana, better afterlife), but the shared element is the concern with one's own ontological status and destiny.
This type of practice is possible for both common people and elites.
The liturgical modality
This modality includes elaborated rituals such as Imperial state rituals, Confucian rites, Daoist rites, funerals, exorcisms, etc. The complex and high symbolism requires highly specialized personnel – provide with great power and social respect – and often involves esoteric knowledge and elaborate ritual procedures.
The immediate-practical modality
In this modality practices are simple and aim at more immediate results. Practices are more direct and involve shorter and simpler procedures. There is minimal ritual elaboration. Because of its simplicity and low cost , this modality is the most frequently used by the common people ( peasants, petty urbanites).
The key point here is that we have a hermeneutical or interpretive tool that offers a valid alternative to the traditional approaches based on doctrines, texts, or quantitative data. While this approach highlights a few modalities of practicing religion that are prevalent in the Chinese context, it also allows for a **wide variety of concrete combinations and possibilities.
Competition in China was between modalities and within the same modality** In China, conflicts between religions generally manifested as competitions between different modalities of practicing religion or even within a particular modality of religious practice. Religious rivalries in China were not typically based on doctrinal or denominational differences, as seen in Europe’s 16th-century religious wars. This presents a notable contrast to countries where religious power was centralized under strong institutions, such as the Roman Church in Europe.
Religious competitions in China as competitions of religious providers. Religious differences in China are based upon coexistence and/or competitions of various providers of religious services , much more than coexistence and/or competition of various religious doctrines.
Objection
"Don’t Chinese people know their own culture better than anyone else? Shouldn't we follow what they say?" This objection is naïve: It rests on the assumption that people of a particular country can understand their culture better than anyone else. However, this isn't necessarily true, as everyone perceives the world through certain lenses , and it's crucial to become aware of how these lenses shape our understanding. The ways of thinking among many experts and ordinary people in East Asia are influenced by categories developed during colonial and modern times. For example, many " old traditions" were actually invented in modern times. The formation of nation-states in East Asia during this period has significantly altered the interpretation of the past. In China, religious and political elites have a vested interest in constructing a specific, clear-cut image of Chinese religions in the image of Abrahamic religions , which serves as a tool for controlling the population. This constructed image may not necessarily reflect the complex and multifaceted reality of Chinese culture and religion.
Religious Diversity as Fact and Religious Pluralism as Ideology
Central in Chan’s book is the notion of religious “diversity” ( pluralism ) in China.
- Pluralism is based on the idea of strong religious identities and on pronounced and stressed differences between denominations. We Westerners have a concept of pluralism based on the existence of a variety of distinct religions , such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc. each characterized by its own system of beliefs and doctrines We mistakenly apply this idea to the religious world of Asia, where we identify religions like Buddhism, Taoism, Hinduism, etc.
- These western assumptions of pluralism prevent us from realizing the religious situation in China. This kind of pluralism is between different religions based on a discursive-scriptural modality of doing religions. Most people of the world that practice a different type of religions are silenced (even in China, by the Chinese authorities). China is a challenge for our idea of religious pluralism. Too complex to be represented in the denominational model. China has always been a religiously diverse country , but this diversity is more evident as different "modalities of doing religion' rather than as discrete confessional religions. For the vast majority of Chinese people historically and today, the presence of a wide variety of modalities of doing religion is simply a fact of their daily lives. However, "religious diversity" as a concept is alien to most Chinese people because their approach to religion is primarily instrumental and occasion-based – an efficacy-based religiosity – rather than confessionally- based. In China, political control has led to the preference for isolating five recognized denominations: - Buddhism - Taoism - Protestantism - Catholicism - Islam The real situation in China is that there is a messier idea of religions: there is a fluid and highly localized religious landscape.
Japanese religion
In Japan , the situation of religions differs significantly from that in China, as the process of strengthening religious denominations as a means of control began during the Tokugawa or Edo period , long before the onset of modernization. Starting with similar premises, Japan started to diverge since Edo period. In the Meiji period , a process of top-down reformations changed completely the religious landscape. Nowadays, Japan is partly denominational —at the official level, Japanese religions appear to follow Abrahamic concepts of religion—and partly practical and non-denominational , with a stronger connection to traditional practices at the unofficial level.
PURE TETSUGAKU :
The study of the pure principles of tetsugaku : the study that inquiries into the axioms of truth and the foundation of the discipline.
DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION 1
Oxford Dictionary : The belief in and worship of a god or gods, or any such system of belief and worship. Collins : (Uncountable) Religion is belief in a god or gods and the activities that are connected with this belief, such as praying or worshipping in a building such as a church or temple. (Countable) A religion is a particular system of belief in a god or gods and the activities that are connected with this system. Merriam-Webster :
A personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices;
a. The service and worship of God or the supernatural b. Commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance c. The state of a religious
DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION (BRITANNICA )
1. Human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. 2. It is also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate concerns about their lives and their fate after death. 3. In many traditions, this relation and these concerns are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitude toward gods or spirits ; in more humanistic or naturalistic forms of religion, they are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitudes toward the broader human community or the natural world.
- In many religions, texts are deemed to have scriptural status, and people are esteemed to be invested with spiritual or moral authority.
- Believers and worshippers participate in and are often enjoined to perform devotional or contemplative practices such as prayer, meditation, or particular rituals. 6. Worship , moral conduct , right belief , and participation in religious institutions are among the constituent elements of the religious life.
BIASED DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION
- Christian origins (eurocentrism)
- Theocentric definition (closer to Christianity): God/gods
- Hierocentric definition (farer to Christianity): the Sacred BUT Problem with both theocentric and hierocentric definitions Many “religions” without god/gods , or without a god being the central point of prayer and practice (Veda, many Buddhist schools, confucianism) In Japan and China: before modernity, no clear-cut distinction between sacred and profane. «RELIGION» IN EUROPEAN HISTORY A. FROM 17° CENT : Stared to emerge the idea of a possible religious pluralism. B. MIDDLE AGES : Only one possible true relationship with God : Christianity. The others: heresies and false cults (Islam, Judaism, «paganism», «idolatry»). Religio in the Middle ages was associated with ritual obligations of religious people (who took the vows). A religion external to Christianity was impossible. C. ANCIENT ROME : Religio = obligations or prohibitions (even social duties): not only towards the gods. RELIGION» IS MODERN IF IT IS…
- A system of beliefs and practices within a certain social group, which can be represented as a group of propositions.
- An activity independent from other activities (politics, science, economy, philosophy)
- A character deemed universal , specific for every human culture which makes it incompatible with other similar and alternative characters. MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN: MEIJI PERIOD (1868-1912) Term «religion» (shūkyō 關關 ) in Japan With the current meaning, this term did not exist before 1868. In Edo period ( 1602-1868 ), its meaning was «teaching of the lineage» and it did not designate a universal truth , beyond the specific traditions of beliefs or the traditions. 1873 : end of the ban of Christianity and beginning of the need of a term indicating the «teachings about the truth of human being existing beyond specific cults»
«Religion» in Japan
- Derives from an American-protestant conception
- It became the model used to «normalize» Japanese cults.
- It became part of the private sphere. In Japan prior to modernity, these traits did to describe any cultural realty in the country SHŪKYŌ AS PART OF PRIVATE SPHERE IN JAPAN
Epistemological problem Yamada demonstrates how Herrigel interpreted events, attributing meanings that they did not originally possess. He highlights the human tendency to fill gaps in communication with some form of meaning, offering insights into how the mind operates and how certain mechanisms—such as orientalism—function.
Historiographical problem: it is made clear the status of “traditions” in modern times. POST-NIETSCHEAN VIENNESE CULTURE We need to place Herrigel’s book within its historical and cultural context. MASSIMO CACCIARI The post-Nietzschean Viennese culture was particularly attracted by the anti-systematic approach offered by Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. This approach was substantially fed by the reevaluation of Mahayana. Many of the Viennese intellectuals searched in the East Asian Buddhism a way to overcome the dualism between thinking and its object , the desiring ego and the purpose. Herrigel in his book tries to show that in the process of releasing the arrow , whenever there is any kind of intention there is the ego , hence the act is forever ruined by its very premise. This is not very different from the paradox of intentionality: of trying not to try. We should get rid of ourselves in order to overcome dualism and yet this very act of getting rid of ourselves is done by our conscious intentions, by our will, by the subject. ORIENTALISM DICHOTOMY BETWEEN EASTERN AND WESTERN ESSENCES Orientalism can be defined as a more or less coherent worldview based on a dichotomy between the West and the East, with the West positioned as the center and the East as the periphery. This approach considers the distinction between East and West as valid from historical, epistemological, and cultural perspectives. East and west are two different, transcendental and historical identities or essences.
FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE
Syntagmatic and paradigmatic structures
Syntagmatic structures : the relationship in which words combine to create grammatically acceptable phrases. Paradigmatic structures : the substitutional relationships that a linguistic unit has with other units.
Example of syntagmatic and paradigmatic chain
Syntagmatic Chain A syntagmatic chain refers to the linear sequence of elements in the same sentence where each element follows a specific order and relationship with the others. Ex. In the sentence "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog," the syntagmatic chain consists of the sequence of words that are used. Here, each word is linked to the next based on syntactic rules. Paradigmatic Chain A paradigmatic chain involves the choice of alternative elements that can be substituted for each other in a given context. It represents the set of options available for each position in a syntagmatic chain. Ex. Consider the adjective slot in the sentence "The [adjective] fox jumps over the lazy dog." The paradigmatic chain for this slot might include different adjectives: quick, brown, agile, furry, sly. Each of these adjectives could replace "quick" in the syntagmatic chain to create variations of the sentence :
Here, the adjectives represent a paradigmatic chain.
Another explanation Syntagmatic is a development in continuity , the connection between elements of a chain that are visible all together in presence Paradigmatic chains are different: they develop by association of ideas.
