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Técnicas de Leitura
As técnicas de leitura, como o próprio nome diz, vão nos ajudar a ler um texto. Existem técnicas variadas, mas veremos as mais utilizadas. Ao ler um texto em Inglês, lembre-se de usar as técnicas aprendidas, elas vão ajudá-lo. O uso da gramática vai ajudar também. As principais técnicas são: a identificação de cognatos, de palavras repetidas e de pistas tipográficas. Ao lermos um texto vamos,ainda, apurar a idéia geral do texto (general comprehension) e utilizar duas outras técnicas bastante úteis: skimming e scanning.
a) Cognatos Os cognatos são palavras muito parecidas com as palavras do Português. São as chamadas palavras transparentes. Existem também os falsos cognatos, que são palavras que achamos que é tal coisa, mas não é; os falsos cognatos são em menor número, estes nós veremos adiante. Como cognatos podemos citar: school (escola), telephone (telefone), car (carro), question (questão, pergunta), activity (atividade), training (treinamento)... Você mesmo poderá criar sua própria lista de cognatos!
b) Palavras repetidas As palavras repetidas em um texto possuem um valor muito importante. Um autor não repete as palavras em vão. Se elas são repetidas, é porque são importantes dentro de texto. Muitas vezes para não repetir o mesmo termo, o autor utiliza sinônimos das mesmas palavras para não tornar o texto cansativo.
c) Pistas tipográficas As pistas tipográficas são elementos visuais que nos auxiliam na compreensão do texto. Atenção com datas, números, tabelas, gráficas, figuras... São informações também contidas no texto. Os recursos de escrita também são pistas tipográficas. Por exemplo:
- ... (três pontos) indicam a continuação de uma idéia que não está ali exposta;
- negrito dá destaque a algum termo ou palavra;
- itálico também destaca um termo, menos importante que o negrito;
- ‘’ ‘’ (aspas) salientam a importância de alguma palavra;
- ( ) (parênteses) introduzem uma idéia complementar ao texto.
d) General Comprehension A idéia geral de um texto é obtida com o emprego das técnicas anteriores. Selecionando-se criteriosamente algumas palavras, termos e expressões no texto, poderemos chegar à idéia geral do texto. Por exemplo, vamos ler o trecho abaixo e tentar obter a “general comprehension” deste parágrafo:
“ Distance education takes place when a teacher and students are separated by physical distance , and technology (i.e., voice , video and data ), often in concert with face - to - face communication , is used to bridge the instructional gap.”
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From: Engineering Outreach College of Engineering – University of Idaho
A partir das palavras cognatas do texto (em negrito) podemos ter um a idéia geral do que se trata; vamos enumerar as palavras conhecidas (pelo menos as que são semelhantes ao Português):
- distance education = educação a distancia
- students = estudantes, alunos
- separeted = separado
- physical distance = distância física
- technology = tecnologia
- voice, video, data = voz, vídeo e dados (atenção: “data” não é data)
- face-to-face communication = comunicação face-a-face
- used = usado (a)
- instructional = instrucional
Então você poderia dizer que o texto trata sobre educação a distância; que esta ocorre quando os alunos estão separados fisicamente do professor; a tecnologia (voz, vídeo, dados) podem ser usados de forma instrucional. Você poderia ter esta conclusão sobre o texto mesmo sem ter muito conhecimento de Inglês. É claro que à medida que você for aprendendo, a sua percepção sobre o texto também aumentará. Há muitas informações que não são tão óbvias assim.
e) Skimming “skim” em inglês é deslizar à superfície, desnatar (daí skimmed milk = leite desnatado), passar os olhos por. A técnica de “skimming” nos leva a ler um texto superficialmente. Utilizar esta técnica significa que precisamos ler cada sentença, mas sim passarmos os olhos por sobre o texto, lendo algumas frases aqui e ali, procurando reconhecer certas palavras e expressões que sirvam como ‘dicas’ na obtenção de informações sobre o texto. Às vezes não é necessário ler o texto em detalhes. Para usar esta técnica, precisamos nos valer dos nossos conhecimentos de Inglês também.
Observe este trecho: “Using this integrated approach, the educator’s task is to carefully select among the technological options. The goal is to build a mix of instructional media, meeting the needs of the learner in a manner that is instructionally effective and economically prudent .” From: Engineering Outreach College of Engineering – University of Idaho
Selecionando algumas expressões teremos:
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TEXTO 2
In the beginning, there was the analog cell phone. And then the cell phone went digital. And that provides a clearer connection and more reability. Now the future of technology appears to be in the hands of the mobile phone industry. Cell phones and handhelds are everywhere. The future is now, and it is wireless. Except the future is still the future. Wireless technology is relatively young. The first generation has been around only since the early 1980s, when analog voice transmission networks were introduced. The second generation took over in the mid-‘90s with the advent of digital wireless voice and data networks, giving us the capabilities that spawned the cell phone revolution we know today. Now comes the so-called third generation – or 3G – which generally refers to networks capable of connecting to the Internet at speeds 40 tines the rate of today’s cell phones, promising Interneting connections will be fast enough to download streaming audio and files, swap digital photos, and hold teleconferences. It will also use the existing spectrum space more efficiently and increase the speeds with which basic data can be transmitted over wireless devices.
TEXTO 3 Lamps can be connected in series or in parallel. If you connect lamps in parallel the lamps stay the same brightness however many lamps you add. This is because the voltage across every lamp is the same. In your house the lamps are connected in parallel. This means that even if you have all the lights on, the lights do not dim.
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Digital Oscilloscope
For the maximum safety of the person who may use the oscilloscopes, they have been designed and manufactured for full safety features and they are shipped after stringent inspections. And yet, it is unavoidable handle it carefully, in order to avoid damage to the instruments and hazards to the persons. Above, there are notes and warnings which the persons using the instrument must take heed of and observe:
NOTE – Calls for special attention for correct and efficient use of the instrument.
WARNINGS – Calls for attention for a matter which might lead to a damage of the oscilloscope itself or other instruments.
The following symbols may be posted on the oscilloscope as well as indicated in this manual.
“DANGER! HIGH VOLTAGE” – This symbol means that the item cannot be charged up to a hazardous high voltage and must not be touched with bare hands.
“REFER TO THE CORRESPONDING SECTION” – This symbol means that relative explanations contained in other parts of the handbook should be consulted.
CAUTION – Means a matter which can lead to electric shock hazards to the person who is operating the instrument or to damage of the instrument itself or other instruments.
USE A 3-PIN PLUG - For the input of AC input cable, be sure to use a 3-pin type (one of the pins is used for safety grounding). AC LINE VOLTAGE – Be sure to operate the oscilloscope on an AC line voltage within is correct range. AC POWER CABLE – When replacing the AC plug of the AC power cable, be sure to replace it with a plug of the correct type and ratings, and to connector the GND, NEUTRAL and LIVE wires which are color colored as shown in figure below:
Fig 1
AC POWER FUSE – Be sure to use a power fuse of the correct ratings. COVERS – This oscilloscope has hazardous high voltages internally. Do not remove the covers of the oscilloscope lest you should expose yourself to such high voltages. The covers should be removed only by qualified experts.
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Fig 2
Take out the fuse and check that is a slow-blow fuse of 250 V AC, 2 A. Return the fuse and cap to the original positions by following the take out procedure in the reverse order. Fully insert the cap until it clicks. When you replace the fuse with a new one, make sure to use a correct one. The spare fuse is put in the fuse hold cap. When the fuse has also used up, you may use a new one available on the market, but be sure that it is the correct type and rating. Warnings: Never use a wrong or incorrect fuse. Never short-circuit the fuse holder terminals instead of the fuse. These operations might result in serious damage and hazards.
( 3 ) Checking the power cable - Be sure that the power cable is supplied as an accessory of the oscilloscope. The power cable has a 3-color wire and a 3-pin receptacle; one of the three pins being for safety grounding.
( 4 ) Environments
Avoid using oscilloscope in environments as mentioned below: a) High temperature – Do not expose the oscilloscope to direct sunlight or other source of heat. The ambient temperature range for the guaranteed performance is 10 to 40ºC or 50 to 104ºF.
b) High humidity – Do not use the oscilloscope in high humidity. The humidity range for guaranteed performance is up to 75% RH.
c) Electronic magnetic field - Do not use the oscilloscope in strong electric or magnetic field, lest the displayed images should be distorted, or otherwise adversely affected.
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d) Unstable position - Do not use the oscilloscope on a swaying bench or other unstable positon.
e) Flammable atmosphere - Do not use the oscilloscope in flammable or explosive atmosphere, to prevent fire and explosion hazards.
f) Blocked ventilations holes – Do not block the rear, side and button panels. Provide an ample space behind the rear panel, where the air-cooling fan is installed on.
( 5 ) Preserving the CRT CRT intensity - In order prevent permanent damage to the CRT phosphor, do not make the CRT trace Excessively bright or leave the beam spot stationary for an unreasonably long time
( 6 ) Checking the Oscilloscope operation Check the operation of the oscilloscope as explained in this section. The oscilloscope will automatically diagnose itself as you turn the power switch on. a) Confirm if the power switch is off; b) Connect the power cable to the AC inlet of the oscilloscope; c) Connect the power plug to an AC outlet. d) Turn the power switch on; e) The green indicator LED on the power switch will light up; f) The readouts and traces will appear on the CRT screen; g) After a minute, turn the power switch off once; h) Wait for several seconds and turn the power on again;
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LOGIG LAB UNIT (MINILAB)
1. Features of ED- 1000-B LOGIC LAB UNIT (LLU)
LLU is devised to design and test the circuits consisted of various kinds of digital and linear IC’s as well as transistors. There are two characteristics in this product. First, it has several buil-in circuits, which are very useful for the experiment of digital circuits. Second, all the connectors, switches, lampas and knobs are located in order to provide easy connections and experiences with the components. Power is supplied from either 100V or 220V. This product has DC power supply.
2. Descriptions of panel controls and connectors
(1) HEXADECIMAL NUMBER DISPLAY (DIGIT DISPLAY): displays hexadecimal numbers 0-9 and A- F bit binary input.
(2) LED INDICATOR: there are four LEDs both sides, right and left, which makes eight in total. Monitors inputs or outputs of BCD.
(3) VOLTAGE METER: measures voltage ranging from 0 to 15V. The input resistance is 100 KΩ.
(4) VARIABLE RESISTOR 10 K Ω and (14) VARIABLE RESISTOR 500 KΩ
(5) PULSE OUTPUT (1 Hz, 10 Hz, 100 Hz): provides continuous square waves at each terminal.
(6) BREAD BOARD (PROTO BOARD): used for connections between several parts of a circuit.
(7) PUSH BUTTON LOGIC SWITCH: provides inputs for logic control.
(8) DATA SWITCH: every five switches furnishes Low/ High logical levels. They enable you to
experiment digital circuits with different control signals and data input.
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(9) PUSH BUTTON SWITCH: if inserted serially to a circuit, you can have ON-OFF operation.
(10) POWER SWITCH: turns ON and OFF AC 100V or 220 V input.
(11) DC OVERLOAD ALARM: gives a warning sign in case of overloading troubles.
(12) 60 Hz OUTPUT: outputs AC 4.5 V(RMS) with 60Hz. This signal can be applied to clock
signal or time base.
(13) BUZZER INPUT: operates on 2-5V. The input current is less than 1 mA (as small as CMOS
output).
(15) DC OUTPUT: provides + 5V/ - 5V DC power, with is used for digital circuits.
(16) CURRENT METER: measures load current of 5V out put. It is connected serially with output.
(17) COMMON MODE SWITCH (CM SELECTOR): selects input polarity to LED indicator. If put to
“ANODE”, LED will be ON with input “0”. Contrarily, if put to “CATHODE”, LED will be ON with
input “1”.
3. Logic Lab Unit operating procedures
¾ WARNINGS
- Make sure that AC input voltage is 110V or 220 V and select corresponding voltage input
selector at rear panel;
- Keep this unit away from heat and dusty place;
- When you connect the circuit on bread board, use jump wire whose diameter is less than 6
mm;
- Make sure that pin 1 (index notch) identification of all IC is correctly directed as you
designed;
- Check if Vcc/Vdd of every IC is connected to proper power supply.
¾ PROCEDURES
- Turn the power switch OFF;
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SWITCH OFF - desligado, desarmado
SWITCH ON - ligado, armado
TIME BASE - base de tempo
VOLTAGE METER - voltímetro
WIRE COLOR - cor de fio ou condutor
ABREVIATIONS/ MONOGRAMS
AC (LTERNATE CURRENT) - Corrente alternada
BCD (BINARY CODED DECIMAL) - decimal codificado em binário
CMOS (COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR) - semicondutor metálico
DC (DIRECT CURRENT) - corrente contínua
GND (GROUND) - aterramento, terra
IC (INTEGRATED CIRCUIT) - circuito integrado
LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) - diodo emissor de luz
RMS (ROOT MENA SQUARE) - valor médio quadrático ou eficaz
SW (SWITCH) - chave, interruptor, interruptor, alavanca
VR (VARIABLE RESISTOR) - resistor variável
MINILAB RESEARCH
According Emit Output Useful According
All Enable Own Useless All
Alternate Experiment Panel Very Alternate
Alternative Feature Pin View Alternative
Anode Find Procedure Voltage Anode
Any First Proper Wave Any
Apply Five Provide Warning Apply
As small as Following Push Which As small as
As well as Front Pulse White As well as
At your own Furnish Put Whose At your own
Away Ground Range Wide Away
Be off Heith Rear Width Be off
Be on High Red Wire Be on
Because In order to Right yellow Because
Between Index Same Consist Between
Black Input Second Current Black
Board Integrated Serially Design Board
Bread board Jump wire Several Devise Bread board
Buzzer Keep an eye Shord Diode Buzzer
Cathode Knob Shorted Direct Cathode
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Multitester – Instruction Manual
Appearence and parts names
1. Indicator zero corrector
2. 2. Range selector switch knob
3. Measuring terminal +
4. Measuring terminal – COM (common)
5. OUTPUT (series condenser) terminal
6. 0 Ω adjusting knob
7. Panel
8. Indicator pointer
9. Rear case bolt
10. Rear case
11. Connector for hFE test
12. Connection pin to tester
13. Transistor base clip
14. Transistor collector clip
SPECIFICATION
DC VOLTAGE
Ranges:
0.1 – 0.5 – 2.5 – 10 – 50- 250 – 1000V
Accuracy at FSD :4%
Sensitivity :20 K Ω / V
AC VOLTAGE:
Ranges:
10-50-250-1000V
Accurancy at FSD :5%
Sensitivity :9 K Ω / V
Decibelmeter : - 10 to + 50dB
0 db = 1mw/ 600
DC CURRENCY
Ranges:
50 μ A (at 0. 1VDC position), 2.5 – 25mA, 025A 10 A
Accuracy at FSD: ± 3%
Volt Drop : 250 mV
Weith 280g
Operation
Ω TEST
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5) Read the Iceo range, if the pointer is within the LEAK zone or the pointer
moves up the full scale, the transistor tested is not good, otherwise it is a good transistor.
hFE (DC amplification) test
(1) Set the range selector at selected range position – X 1K for 0 -150 for 15 mA,
X1 for 0 – 150 mA test;
(2) Adjust 0Ω ADJ to adjust the pointer to zero position;
(3) Connect the diode to the tester:
- For IF (forward current) test:
A- Connect the “P” terminal of the tester to the emitter of the
transistor with the hFE test lead;
B- Plug the hFE connector into “N” terminal and connect its red clip
to the collector and the black one to the base of the transistor;
A- connect the “N” terminal of the tester to the emitter of the
transistor;
B- Plug the hFE connector into the “P” terminal and connect the
clips in the same way as for NPN transistor connection;
(4) Read the hFE scale. The value of the reading is Ic/ Ib, which is the DC
amplification degree of the transistor tested.
DIODE TEST
(1) Set the range selector at selected range position – X1K for 0 – 150 μ A, for
15mA, X1 for 0 – 150 mA test;
(2) Connect the diode to the tester:
- For IF (forward current) test connect the “N” terminal of the tester to the
positive polarity of the diode and the “P” terminal to the negative polarity
of the diode. For IR ( reverse current) test, reverse the connection;
(3) Read IF or IR one the LI scale provided;
(4) Read the linear (forward) voltage of the diode on the LV scale while testing IF
or IR.
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Electronic Circuits
Introduction
This unit introduces you to electronic circuits and explains the meaning of current,
voltage and resistance. You will find out about Ohm’s equations and about some of the
components used in building electronic circuits.
Shining a light
Have you ever taken an torch to pieces to find out how does it work? Look at Fig. 1
below, which shows the arrangement of parts inside a torch.
Why did the designer of the torch choose this particular combination of materials?
- The metal parts must conduct electric current if the torch is to function, but they
must also be able to stand up to physical forces.
- The spring holding the cells in place should stay springy, while the parts of the
switch must make good electrical contact and be undamaged by repeated use.
Which materials used in making a torch are conductors and which are insulators?
( ) plastic
( ) copper
( ) tungsten (lamp filament)
( ) glass (outside of lamp)
Drawing a circuit diagram
A different way of describing the torch is by using a circuit diagram in which
the parts of the torch are represented by symbols.
Fig. 1
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If a thick copper wire is connected from the positive terminal of a battery directly to
the negative terminal, you get a very large current for a very short time. In a torch, this
does not happen. Part of the torch circuit limits, or resists, the flow of current. Most of the
circuit consists of thick metal conductors which allow current to flow easily. These parts,
including the spring, switch plates and lamp connections, have a low resistance.
The flow of current through the filament causes it to heat up and glow white hot.
Lamp filaments are usually made of the metal tungsten because of its very high melting
point. In hair, the filament would quickly oxidize. This is prevented by removing all the air
inside the glass of the lamp and replacing it with a non-reactive gas.
Ohm’s equations
The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance was discovered by
Georg Ohm, who published his results in 1827.
Ohm made his won wires and was able to show that the size of an electric current
depend upon their length and thickness. The current was reduced by increasing the
length of the wire or by making it thinner. Current was increased if a shorter thicker wire
was used. In addition, larger currents were observed when the voltage across the wire
was increased.
From experiments like these, Ohm found that, at constant temperature, the ratio of
voltage to current was constant for any particular wire, that is:
Where, R = resistance, V = voltage and I = current.
Ohm’s Law states that, at constant temperature, the electric current flowing in a
conducting material is directly proportional to the applied voltage, and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
Rearranging the formula gives two additional equations:
and
These simple equations are fundamental to electronics and, once you have
learned to use them effectively, you will find that they are the key to a wide range of circuit
problems. You are going to need these equations, so learn them now.
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Did you know…? Light bulbs
The lamp filament was first invented in 1860 by a British physicist, Sir Joseph Swan. When
electric current passes through a thin filament of conducting material, the filament heats up and, if
the current is large enough, the filament becomes first red hot and then white hot, or
incandescent. In air, this effect is short-lived because the filament burns up and breaks. Swan
had the idea of enclosing the filament in a glass container, preventing oxidation by removing the
air inside the container using a vacuum pump.
These early experiments suggested that a useful light source was possible, but Swan did
not have as sufficiently powerful vacuum pump. Years later, Swan tried again using a better
vacuum pump. In 1878, he has successful in demonstrating a true incandescent light bulb.
The American Thomas Edison demonstrated a similar lamp in 1879. However, his real
contribution was to develop not just the light bulb but the whole concept of electric power into a
practical, safe and e economic system. In September 1882, the first commercial power station
went into operation, providing light and power to customers in part of Manhattan. The electric age
had begun.
Edison tested thousands of different filament materials. The first commercial lamps had
filaments made of carbon. This was later replaced by tungsten , a metal with a particularity high
melting point.
In modern filament lamp, a very fine tungsten wire is coiled in a tiny spiral. This spiral is
coiled again to make a “coiled coil”. This arrangement concentrates the heat produced as current
passes through the wire, causing the filament to heat up and reach incandescence much more
quickly. The space inside the lamp is filled with a non-reactive gas, usually an argon/ nitrogen
mixture.
The outline of most parts of the world is identified clearly by city lights. Only recently have
people stared to worry about all the energy used in lighting and how it affects global warming. The
filament lamp is not very efficient and converts just 10 per cent of its energy into light. The rest is
wasted as heat. Energy efficient light bulbs use a different technology and use three to four times
less energy for the same light output. Every home should have them!
The race is on for lighting manufacturers to find ways of making lighting more energy
efficient. Huge savings could be made. It´s possible that in a few years you will be albe to light
your house using super-efficient giant LEDs (light-emitting diodes).
