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Python

Notes for Professionals

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Notes for Professionals

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Python Notes for Professionals

Python

Notes for Professionals

GoalKicker.com

Free Programming Books

Disclaimer

This is an unocial free book created for educational purposes and is

not aliated with ocial Python® group(s) or company(s).

All trademarks and registered trademarks are

the property of their respective owners

700+ pages

of professional hints and tricks

About
Chapter 1: Getting started with Python Language
- Section 1.1: Getting Started
- Section 1.2: Creating variables and assigning values
- Section 1.3: Block Indentation
- Section 1.4: Datatypes
- Section 1.5: Collection Types
- Section 1.6: IDLE - Python GUI
- Section 1.7: User Input
- Section 1.8: Built in Modules and Functions
- Section 1.9: Creating a module
- Section 1.10: Installation of Python 2.7.x and 3.x
- Section 1.11: String function - str() and repr()
- Section 1.12: Installing external modules using pip
- Section 1.13: Help Utility
Chapter 2: Python Data Types
- Section 2.1: String Data Type
- Section 2.2: Set Data Types
- Section 2.3: Numbers data type
- Section 2.4: List Data Type
- Section 2.5: Dictionary Data Type
- Section 2.6: Tuple Data Type
Chapter 3: Indentation
- Section 3.1: Simple example
- Section 3.2: How Indentation is Parsed
- Section 3.3: Indentation Errors
Chapter 4: Comments and Documentation
- Section 4.1: Single line, inline and multiline comments
- Section 4.2: Programmatically accessing docstrings
- Section 4.3: Write documentation using docstrings
Chapter 5: Date and Time
- Section 5.1: Parsing a string into a timezone aware datetime object
- Section 5.2: Constructing timezone-aware datetimes
- Section 5.3: Computing time dierences
- Section 5.4: Basic datetime objects usage
- Section 5.5: Switching between time zones
- Section 5.6: Simple date arithmetic
- Section 5.7: Converting timestamp to datetime
- Section 5.8: Subtracting months from a date accurately
- Section 5.9: Parsing an arbitrary ISO 8601 timestamp with minimal libraries
- Section 5.10: Get an ISO 8601 timestamp
- Section 5.11: Parsing a string with a short time zone name into a timezone aware datetime object
- Section 5.12: Fuzzy datetime parsing (extracting datetime out of a text)
- Section 5.13: Iterate over dates
Chapter 6: Date Formatting
- Section 6.1: Time between two date-times
- Section 6.2: Outputting datetime object to string
- Section 6.3: Parsing string to datetime object
Chapter 7: Enum
- Section 7.1: Creating an enum (Python 2.4 through 3.3)
- Section 7.2: Iteration
Chapter 8: Set
- Section 8.1: Operations on sets
- Section 8.2: Get the unique elements of a list
- Section 8.3: Set of Sets
- Section 8.4: Set Operations using Methods and Builtins
- Section 8.5: Sets versus multisets
Chapter 9: Simple Mathematical Operators
- Section 9.1: Division
- Section 9.2: Addition
- Section 9.3: Exponentiation
- Section 9.4: Trigonometric Functions
- Section 9.5: Inplace Operations
- Section 9.6: Subtraction
- Section 9.7: Multiplication
- Section 9.8: Logarithms
- Section 9.9: Modulus
Chapter 10: Bitwise Operators
- Section 10.1: Bitwise NOT
- Section 10.2: Bitwise XOR (Exclusive OR)
- Section 10.3: Bitwise AND
- Section 10.4: Bitwise OR
- Section 10.5: Bitwise Left Shift
- Section 10.6: Bitwise Right Shift
- Section 10.7: Inplace Operations
Chapter 11: Boolean Operators
- Section 11.1: and and or are not guaranteed to return a boolean
- Section 11.2: A simple example
- Section 11.3: Short-circuit evaluation
- Section 11.4: and
- Section 11.5: or
- Section 11.6: not
Chapter 12: Operator Precedence
- Section 12.1: Simple Operator Precedence Examples in python
Chapter 13: Variable Scope and Binding
- Section 13.1: Nonlocal Variables
- Section 13.2: Global Variables
- Section 13.3: Local Variables
- Section 13.4: The del command
- Section 13.5: Functions skip class scope when looking up names
- Section 13.6: Local vs Global Scope
- Section 13.7: Binding Occurrence
Chapter 14: Conditionals
- Section 14.1: Conditional Expression (or "The Ternary Operator")
- Section 14.2: if, elif, and else
- Section 14.3: Truth Values
- Section 14.4: Boolean Logic Expressions
- Section 14.5: Using the cmp function to get the comparison result of two objects
- Section 14.6: Else statement
- Section 14.7: Testing if an object is None and assigning it
- Section 14.8: If statement
Chapter 15: Comparisons
- Section 15.1: Chain Comparisons
- Section 15.2: Comparison by is vs ==
- Section 15.3: Greater than or less than
- Section 15.4: Not equal to
- Section 15.5: Equal To
- Section 15.6: Comparing Objects
Chapter 16: Loops
- Section 16.1: Break and Continue in Loops
- Section 16.2: For loops
- Section 16.3: Iterating over lists
- Section 16.4: Loops with an "else" clause
- Section 16.5: The Pass Statement
- Section 16.6: Iterating over dictionaries
- Section 16.7: The "half loop" do-while
- Section 16.8: Looping and Unpacking
- Section 16.9: Iterating dierent portion of a list with dierent step size
- Section 16.10: While Loop
Chapter 17: Arrays
- Section 17.1: Access individual elements through indexes
- Section 17.2: Basic Introduction to Arrays
- Section 17.3: Append any value to the array using append() method
- Section 17.4: Insert value in an array using insert() method
- Section 17.5: Extend python array using extend() method
- Section 17.6: Add items from list into array using fromlist() method
- Section 17.7: Remove any array element using remove() method
- Section 17.8: Remove last array element using pop() method
- Section 17.9: Fetch any element through its index using index() method
- Section 17.10: Reverse a python array using reverse() method
- Section 17.11: Get array buer information through buer_info() method
- Section 17.12: Check for number of occurrences of an element using count() method
- Section 17.13: Convert array to string using tostring() method
- Section 17.14: Convert array to a python list with same elements using tolist() method
- Section 17.15: Append a string to char array using fromstring() method
Chapter 18: Multidimensional arrays
- Section 18.1: Lists in lists
- Section 18.2: Lists in lists in lists in..
Chapter 19: Dictionary
- Section 19.1: Introduction to Dictionary
- Section 19.2: Avoiding KeyError Exceptions
- Section 19.3: Iterating Over a Dictionary
- Section 19.4: Dictionary with default values
- Section 19.5: Merging dictionaries
- Section 19.6: Accessing keys and values
- Section 19.7: Accessing values of a dictionary
- Section 19.8: Creating a dictionary
- Section 19.9: Creating an ordered dictionary
- Section 19.10: Unpacking dictionaries using the ** operator
- Section 19.11: The trailing comma
- Section 19.12: The dict() constructor
- Section 19.13: Dictionaries Example
- Section 19.14: All combinations of dictionary values
Chapter 20: List
- Section 20.1: List methods and supported operators
- Section 20.2: Accessing list values
- Section 20.3: Checking if list is empty
- Section 20.4: Iterating over a list
- Section 20.5: Checking whether an item is in a list
- Section 20.6: Any and All
- Section 20.7: Reversing list elements
- Section 20.8: Concatenate and Merge lists
- Section 20.9: Length of a list
- Section 20.10: Remove duplicate values in list
- Section 20.11: Comparison of lists
- Section 20.12: Accessing values in nested list
- Section 20.13: Initializing a List to a Fixed Number of Elements
Chapter 21: List comprehensions
- Section 21.1: List Comprehensions
- Section 21.2: Conditional List Comprehensions
- Section 21.3: Avoid repetitive and expensive operations using conditional clause
- Section 21.4: Dictionary Comprehensions
- Section 21.5: List Comprehensions with Nested Loops
- Section 21.6: Generator Expressions
- Section 21.7: Set Comprehensions
- Section 21.8: Refactoring filter and map to list comprehensions
- Section 21.9: Comprehensions involving tuples
- Section 21.10: Counting Occurrences Using Comprehension
- Section 21.11: Changing Types in a List
- Section 21.12: Nested List Comprehensions
- Section 21.13: Iterate two or more list simultaneously within list comprehension
Chapter 22: List slicing (selecting parts of lists)
- Section 22.1: Using the third "step" argument
- Section 22.2: Selecting a sublist from a list
- Section 22.3: Reversing a list with slicing
- Section 22.4: Shifting a list using slicing
Chapter 23: groupby()
- Section 23.1: Example
- Section 23.2: Example
- Section 23.3: Example
Chapter 24: Linked lists
- Section 24.1: Single linked list example
Chapter 25: Linked List Node
- Section 25.1: Write a simple Linked List Node in python
Chapter 26: Filter
- Section 26.1: Basic use of filter
- Section 26.2: Filter without function
- Section 26.3: Filter as short-circuit check
- Section 26.4: Complementary function: filterfalse, ifilterfalse
Chapter 27: Heapq
- Section 27.1: Largest and smallest items in a collection
- Section 27.2: Smallest item in a collection
Chapter 28: Tuple
- Section 28.1: Tuple
- Section 28.2: Tuples are immutable
- Section 28.3: Packing and Unpacking Tuples
- Section 28.4: Built-in Tuple Functions
- Section 28.5: Tuple Are Element-wise Hashable and Equatable
- Section 28.6: Indexing Tuples
- Section 28.7: Reversing Elements
Chapter 29: Basic Input and Output
- Section 29.1: Using the print function
- Section 29.2: Input from a File
- Section 29.3: Read from stdin
- Section 29.4: Using input() and raw_input()
- Section 29.5: Function to prompt user for a number
- Section 29.6: Printing a string without a newline at the end
Chapter 30: Files & Folders I/O
- Section 30.1: File modes
- Section 30.2: Reading a file line-by-line
- Section 30.3: Iterate files (recursively)
- Section 30.4: Getting the full contents of a file
- Section 30.5: Writing to a file
- Section 30.6: Check whether a file or path exists
- Section 30.7: Random File Access Using mmap
- Section 30.8: Replacing text in a file
- Section 30.9: Checking if a file is empty
- Section 30.10: Read a file between a range of lines
- Section 30.11: Copy a directory tree
- Section 30.12: Copying contents of one file to a dierent file
Chapter 31: os.path
- Section 31.1: Join Paths
- Section 31.2: Path Component Manipulation
- Section 31.3: Get the parent directory
- Section 31.4: If the given path exists
- Section 31.5: check if the given path is a directory, file, symbolic link, mount point etc
- Section 31.6: Absolute Path from Relative Path
Chapter 32: Iterables and Iterators
- Section 32.1: Iterator vs Iterable vs Generator
- Section 32.2: Extract values one by one
- Section 32.3: Iterating over entire iterable
- Section 32.4: Verify only one element in iterable
- Section 32.5: What can be iterable
- Section 32.6: Iterator isn't reentrant!
Chapter 33: Functions
- Section 33.1: Defining and calling simple functions
- Section 33.2: Defining a function with an arbitrary number of arguments
- Section 33.3: Lambda (Inline/Anonymous) Functions
- Section 33.4: Defining a function with optional arguments
- Section 33.5: Defining a function with optional mutable arguments
- Section 33.6: Argument passing and mutability
- Section 33.7: Returning values from functions
- Section 33.8: Closure
- Section 33.9: Forcing the use of named parameters
- Section 33.10: Nested functions
- Section 33.11: Recursion limit
- Section 33.12: Recursive Lambda using assigned variable
- Section 33.13: Recursive functions
- Section 33.14: Defining a function with arguments
- Section 33.15: Iterable and dictionary unpacking
- Section 33.16: Defining a function with multiple arguments
Chapter 34: Defining functions with list arguments
- Section 34.1: Function and Call
Chapter 35: Functional Programming in Python
- Section 35.1: Lambda Function
- Section 35.2: Map Function
- Section 35.3: Reduce Function
- Section 35.4: Filter Function
Chapter 36: Partial functions
- Section 36.1: Raise the power
Chapter 37: Decorators
- Section 37.1: Decorator function
- Section 37.2: Decorator class
- Section 37.3: Decorator with arguments (decorator factory)
- Section 37.4: Making a decorator look like the decorated function
- Section 37.5: Using a decorator to time a function
- Section 37.6: Create singleton class with a decorator
Chapter 38: Classes
- Section 38.1: Introduction to classes
- Section 38.2: Bound, unbound, and static methods
- Section 38.3: Basic inheritance
- Section 38.4: Monkey Patching
- Section 38.5: New-style vs. old-style classes
- Section 38.6: Class methods: alternate initializers
- Section 38.7: Multiple Inheritance
- Section 38.8: Properties
- Section 38.9: Default values for instance variables
- Section 38.10: Class and instance variables
- Section 38.11: Class composition
- Section 38.12: Listing All Class Members
- Section 38.13: Singleton class
- Section 38.14: Descriptors and Dotted Lookups
Chapter 39: Metaclasses
- Section 39.1: Basic Metaclasses
- Section 39.2: Singletons using metaclasses
- Section 39.3: Using a metaclass
- Section 39.4: Introduction to Metaclasses
- Section 39.5: Custom functionality with metaclasses
- Section 39.6: The default metaclass
Chapter 40: String Formatting
- Section 40.1: Basics of String Formatting
- Section 40.2: Alignment and padding
- Section 40.3: Format literals (f-string)
- Section 40.4: Float formatting
- Section 40.5: Named placeholders
- Section 40.6: String formatting with datetime
- Section 40.7: Formatting Numerical Values
- Section 40.8: Nested formatting
- Section 40.9: Format using Getitem and Getattr
- Section 40.10: Padding and truncating strings, combined
- Section 40.11: Custom formatting for a class
Chapter 41: String Methods
- Section 41.1: Changing the capitalization of a string
- Section 41.2: str.translate: Translating characters in a string
- Section 41.3: str.format and f-strings: Format values into a string
- Section 41.4: String module's useful constants
- Section 41.5: Stripping unwanted leading/trailing characters from a string
- Section 41.6: Reversing a string
- Section 41.7: Split a string based on a delimiter into a list of strings
- Section 41.8: Replace all occurrences of one substring with another substring
- Section 41.9: Testing what a string is composed of
- Section 41.10: String Contains
- Section 41.11: Join a list of strings into one string
- Section 41.12: Counting number of times a substring appears in a string
- Section 41.13: Case insensitive string comparisons
- Section 41.14: Justify strings
- Section 41.15: Test the starting and ending characters of a string
- Section 41.16: Conversion between str or bytes data and unicode characters
Chapter 42: Using loops within functions
- Section 42.1: Return statement inside loop in a function
Chapter 43: Importing modules
- Section 43.1: Importing a module
- Section 43.2: The all special variable
- Section 43.3: Import modules from an arbitrary filesystem location
- Section 43.4: Importing all names from a module
- Section 43.5: Programmatic importing
- Section 43.6: PEP8 rules for Imports
- Section 43.7: Importing specific names from a module
- Section 43.8: Importing submodules
- Section 43.9: Re-importing a module
- Section 43.10: import() function
Chapter 44: Dierence between Module and Package
- Section 44.1: Modules
- Section 44.2: Packages
Chapter 45: Math Module
- Section 45.1: Rounding: round, floor, ceil, trunc
- Section 45.2: Trigonometry
- Section 45.3: Pow for faster exponentiation
- Section 45.4: Infinity and NaN ("not a number")
- Section 45.5: Logarithms
- Section 45.6: Constants
- Section 45.7: Imaginary Numbers
- Section 45.8: Copying signs
- Section 45.9: Complex numbers and the cmath module
Chapter 46: Complex math
- Section 46.1: Advanced complex arithmetic
- Section 46.2: Basic complex arithmetic
Chapter 47: Collections module
- Section 47.1: collections.Counter
- Section 47.2: collections.OrderedDict
- Section 47.3: collections.defaultdict
- Section 47.4: collections.namedtuple
- Section 47.5: collections.deque
- Section 47.6: collections.ChainMap
Chapter 48: Operator module
- Section 48.1: Itemgetter
- Section 48.2: Operators as alternative to an infix operator
- Section 48.3: Methodcaller
Chapter 49: JSON Module
- Section 49.1: Storing data in a file
- Section 49.2: Retrieving data from a file
- Section 49.3: Formatting JSON output
- Section 49.4: load vs loads, dump vs dumps
- Section 49.5: Calling json.tool from the command line to pretty-print JSON output
- Section 49.6: JSON encoding custom objects
- Section 49.7: Creating JSON from Python dict
- Section 49.8: Creating Python dict from JSON
Chapter 50: Sqlite3 Module
- Section 50.1: Sqlite3 - Not require separate server process
- Section 50.2: Getting the values from the database and Error handling
Chapter 51: The os Module
- Section 51.1: makedirs - recursive directory creation
- Section 51.2: Create a directory
- Section 51.3: Get current directory
- Section 51.4: Determine the name of the operating system
- Section 51.5: Remove a directory
- Section 51.6: Follow a symlink (POSIX)
- Section 51.7: Change permissions on a file
Chapter 52: The locale Module
- Section 52.1: Currency Formatting US Dollars Using the locale Module
Chapter 53: Itertools Module
- Section 53.1: Combinations method in Itertools Module
- Section 53.2: itertools.dropwhile
- Section 53.3: Zipping two iterators until they are both exhausted
- Section 53.4: Take a slice of a generator
- Section 53.5: Grouping items from an iterable object using a function
- Section 53.6: itertools.takewhile
- Section 53.7: itertools.permutations
- Section 53.8: itertools.repeat
- Section 53.9: Get an accumulated sum of numbers in an iterable
- Section 53.10: Cycle through elements in an iterator
- Section 53.11: itertools.product
- Section 53.12: itertools.count
- Section 53.13: Chaining multiple iterators together
Chapter 54: Asyncio Module
- Section 54.1: Coroutine and Delegation Syntax
- Section 54.2: Asynchronous Executors
- Section 54.3: Using UVLoop
- Section 54.4: Synchronization Primitive: Event
- Section 54.5: A Simple Websocket
- Section 54.6: Common Misconception about asyncio
Chapter 55: Random module
- Section 55.1: Creating a random user password
- Section 55.2: Create cryptographically secure random numbers
- Section 55.3: Random and sequences: shue, choice and sample
- Section 55.4: Creating random integers and floats: randint, randrange, random, and uniform
- Section 55.5: Reproducible random numbers: Seed and State
- Section 55.6: Random Binary Decision
Chapter 56: Functools Module
- Section 56.1: partial
- Section 56.2: cmp_to_key
- Section 56.3: lru_cache
- Section 56.4: total_ordering
- Section 56.5: reduce
Chapter 57: The dis module
- Section 57.1: What is Python bytecode?
- Section 57.2: Constants in the dis module
- Section 57.3: Disassembling modules
Chapter 58: The base64 Module
- Section 58.1: Encoding and Decoding Base64
- Section 58.2: Encoding and Decoding Base32
- Section 58.3: Encoding and Decoding Base16
- Section 58.4: Encoding and Decoding ASCII85
- Section 58.5: Encoding and Decoding Base85
Chapter 59: Queue Module
- Section 59.1: Simple example
Chapter 60: Deque Module
- Section 60.1: Basic deque using
- Section 60.2: Available methods in deque
- Section 60.3: limit deque size
- Section 60.4: Breadth First Search
Chapter 61: Webbrowser Module
- Section 61.1: Opening a URL with Default Browser
- Section 61.2: Opening a URL with Dierent Browsers
Chapter 62: tkinter
- Section 62.1: Geometry Managers
- Section 62.2: A minimal tkinter Application
Chapter 63: pyautogui module
- Section 63.1: Mouse Functions
- Section 63.2: Keyboard Functions
- Section 63.3: Screenshot And Image Recognition
Chapter 64: Indexing and Slicing
- Section 64.1: Basic Slicing
- Section 64.2: Reversing an object
- Section 64.3: Slice assignment
- Section 64.4: Making a shallow copy of an array
- Section 64.5: Indexing custom classes: getitem, setitem and delitem
- Section 64.6: Basic Indexing
Chapter 65: Plotting with Matplotlib
- Section 65.1: Plots with Common X-axis but dierent Y-axis : Using twinx()
- Section 65.2: Plots with common Y-axis and dierent X-axis using twiny()
- Section 65.3: A Simple Plot in Matplotlib
- Section 65.4: Adding more features to a simple plot : axis labels, title, axis ticks, grid, and legend
- Section 65.5: Making multiple plots in the same figure by superimposition similar to MATLAB
  - commands Section 65.6: Making multiple Plots in the same figure using plot superimposition with separate plot
Chapter 66: graph-tool
- Section 66.1: PyDotPlus
- Section 66.2: PyGraphviz
Chapter 67: Generators
- Section 67.1: Introduction
- Section 67.2: Infinite sequences
- Section 67.3: Sending objects to a generator
- Section 67.4: Yielding all values from another iterable
- Section 67.5: Iteration
- Section 67.6: The next() function
- Section 67.7: Coroutines
- Section 67.8: Refactoring list-building code
- Section 67.9: Yield with recursion: recursively listing all files in a directory
- Section 67.10: Generator expressions
- Section 67.11: Using a generator to find Fibonacci Numbers
- Section 67.12: Searching
- Section 67.13: Iterating over generators in parallel
Chapter 68: Reduce
- Section 68.1: Overview
- Section 68.2: Using reduce
- Section 68.3: Cumulative product
- Section 68.4: Non short-circuit variant of any/all
Chapter 69: Map Function
- Section 69.1: Basic use of map, itertools.imap and future_builtins.map
- Section 69.2: Mapping each value in an iterable
- Section 69.3: Mapping values of dierent iterables
- Section 69.4: Transposing with Map: Using "None" as function argument (python 2.x only)
- Section 69.5: Series and Parallel Mapping
Chapter 70: Exponentiation
- Section 70.1: Exponentiation using builtins: ** and pow()
- Section 70.2: Square root: math.sqrt() and cmath.sqrt
- Section 70.3: Modular exponentiation: pow() with 3 arguments
- Section 70.4: Computing large integer roots
- Section 70.5: Exponentiation using the math module: math.pow()
- Section 70.6: Exponential function: math.exp() and cmath.exp()
- Section 70.7: Exponential function minus 1: math.expm1()
- Section 70.8: Magic methods and exponentiation: builtin, math and cmath
- Section 70.9: Roots: nth-root with fractional exponents
Chapter 71: Searching
- Section 71.1: Searching for an element
- Section 71.2: Searching in custom classes: contains and iter
- Section 71.3: Getting the index for strings: str.index(), str.rindex() and str.find(), str.rfind()
- Section 71.4: Getting the index list and tuples: list.index(), tuple.index()
- Section 71.5: Searching key(s) for a value in dict
- Section 71.6: Getting the index for sorted sequences: bisect.bisect_left()
- Section 71.7: Searching nested sequences
Chapter 72: Sorting, Minimum and Maximum
- Section 72.1: Make custom classes orderable
- Section 72.2: Special case: dictionaries
- Section 72.3: Using the key argument
- Section 72.4: Default Argument to max, min
- Section 72.5: Getting a sorted sequence
- Section 72.6: Extracting N largest or N smallest items from an iterable
- Section 72.7: Getting the minimum or maximum of several values
- Section 72.8: Minimum and Maximum of a sequence
Chapter 73: Counting
- Section 73.1: Counting all occurrence of all items in an iterable: collections.Counter
- Section 73.2: Getting the most common value(-s): collections.Counter.most_common()
- Section 73.3: Counting the occurrences of one item in a sequence: list.count() and tuple.count()
- Section 73.4: Counting the occurrences of a substring in a string: str.count()
- Section 73.5: Counting occurrences in numpy array
Chapter 74: Writing extensions
- Section 74.1: Hello World with C Extension
- Section 74.2: C Extension Using c++ and Boost
- Section 74.3: Passing an open file to C Extensions
Chapter 75: The Print Function
- Section 75.1: Print basics
- Section 75.2: Print parameters
Chapter 76: Regular Expressions (Regex)
- Section 76.1: Matching the beginning of a string
- Section 76.2: Searching
- Section 76.3: Precompiled patterns
- Section 76.4: Flags
- Section 76.5: Replacing
- Section 76.6: Find All Non-Overlapping Matches
- Section 76.7: Checking for allowed characters
- Section 76.8: Splitting a string using regular expressions
- Section 76.9: Grouping
- Section 76.10: Escaping Special Characters
- Section 76.11: Match an expression only in specific locations
- Section 76.12: Iterating over matches using re.finditer
Chapter 77: Copying data
- Section 77.1: Copy a dictionary
- Section 77.2: Performing a shallow copy
- Section 77.3: Performing a deep copy
- Section 77.4: Performing a shallow copy of a list
- Section 77.5: Copy a set
Chapter 78: Context Managers (“with” Statement)
- Section 78.1: Introduction to context managers and the with statement
- Section 78.2: Writing your own context manager
- Section 78.3: Writing your own contextmanager using generator syntax
- Section 78.4: Multiple context managers
- Section 78.5: Assigning to a target
- Section 78.6: Manage Resources
Chapter 79: The name special variable
- Section 79.1: name == 'main'
- Section 79.2: Use in logging
- Section 79.3: function_class_or_module.name
Chapter 80: Checking Path Existence and Permissions
- Section 80.1: Perform checks using os.access
Chapter 81: Creating Python packages
- Section 81.1: Introduction
- Section 81.2: Uploading to PyPI
- Section 81.3: Making package executable
Chapter 82: Usage of "pip" module: PyPI Package Manager
- Section 82.1: Example use of commands
- Section 82.2: Handling ImportError Exception
- Section 82.3: Force install
Chapter 83: pip: PyPI Package Manager
- Section 83.1: Install Packages
- Section 83.2: To list all packages installed using pip
- Section 83.3: Upgrade Packages
- Section 83.4: Uninstall Packages
- Section 83.5: Updating all outdated packages on Linux
- Section 83.6: Updating all outdated packages on Windows
- Section 83.7: Create a requirements.txt file of all packages on the system
- Section 83.8: Using a certain Python version with pip
- Section 83.9: Create a requirements.txt file of packages only in the current virtualenv
- Section 83.10: Installing packages not yet on pip as wheels
Chapter 84: Parsing Command Line arguments
- Section 84.1: Hello world in argparse
- Section 84.2: Using command line arguments with argv
- Section 84.3: Setting mutually exclusive arguments with argparse
- Section 84.4: Basic example with docopt
- Section 84.5: Custom parser error message with argparse
- Section 84.6: Conceptual grouping of arguments with argparse.add_argument_group()
- Section 84.7: Advanced example with docopt and docopt_dispatch
Chapter 85: Subprocess Library
- Section 85.1: More flexibility with Popen
- Section 85.2: Calling External Commands
- Section 85.3: How to create the command list argument
Chapter 86: setup.py
- Section 86.1: Purpose of setup.py
- Section 86.2: Using source control metadata in setup.py
- Section 86.3: Adding command line scripts to your python package
- Section 86.4: Adding installation options
Chapter 87: Recursion
- Section 87.1: The What, How, and When of Recursion
- Section 87.2: Tree exploration with recursion
- Section 87.3: Sum of numbers from 1 to n
- Section 87.4: Increasing the Maximum Recursion Depth
- Section 87.5: Tail Recursion - Bad Practice
- Section 87.6: Tail Recursion Optimization Through Stack Introspection
Chapter 88: Type Hints
- Section 88.1: Adding types to a function
- Section 88.2: NamedTuple
- Section 88.3: Generic Types
- Section 88.4: Variables and Attributes
- Section 88.5: Class Members and Methods
- Section 88.6: Type hints for keyword arguments
Chapter 89: Exceptions
- Section 89.1: Catching Exceptions
- Section 89.2: Do not catch everything!
- Section 89.3: Re-raising exceptions
- Section 89.4: Catching multiple exceptions
- Section 89.5: Exception Hierarchy
- Section 89.6: Else
- Section 89.7: Raising Exceptions
- Section 89.8: Creating custom exception types
- Section 89.9: Practical examples of exception handling
- Section 89.10: Exceptions are Objects too
- Section 89.11: Running clean-up code with finally
- Section 89.12: Chain exceptions with raise from
Chapter 90: Raise Custom Errors / Exceptions
- Section 90.1: Custom Exception
- Section 90.2: Catch custom Exception
Chapter 91: Commonwealth Exceptions
- Section 91.1: Other Errors
- Section 91.2: NameError: name '???' is not defined
- Section 91.3: TypeErrors
- Section 91.4: Syntax Error on good code
- Section 91.5: IndentationErrors (or indentation SyntaxErrors)
Chapter 92: urllib
- Section 92.1: HTTP GET
- Section 92.2: HTTP POST
- Section 92.3: Decode received bytes according to content type encoding
Chapter 93: Web scraping with Python
- Section 93.1: Scraping using the Scrapy framework
- Section 93.2: Scraping using Selenium WebDriver
- Section 93.3: Basic example of using requests and lxml to scrape some data
- Section 93.4: Maintaining web-scraping session with requests
- Section 93.5: Scraping using BeautifulSoup4
- Section 93.6: Simple web content download with urllib.request
- Section 93.7: Modify Scrapy user agent
- Section 93.8: Scraping with curl
Chapter 94: HTML Parsing
- Section 94.1: Using CSS selectors in BeautifulSoup
- Section 94.2: PyQuery
- Section 94.3: Locate a text after an element in BeautifulSoup
Chapter 95: Manipulating XML
- Section 95.1: Opening and reading using an ElementTree
- Section 95.2: Create and Build XML Documents
- Section 95.3: Modifying an XML File
- Section 95.4: Searching the XML with XPath
- Section 95.5: Opening and reading large XML files using iterparse (incremental parsing)
Chapter 96: Python Requests Post
- Section 96.1: Simple Post
- Section 96.2: Form Encoded Data
- Section 96.3: File Upload
- Section 96.4: Responses
- Section 96.5: Authentication
- Section 96.6: Proxies
Chapter 97: Distribution
- Section 97.1: py2app
- Section 97.2: cx_Freeze
Chapter 98: Property Objects
- Section 98.1: Using the @property decorator for read-write properties
- Section 98.2: Using the @property decorator
- Section 98.3: Overriding just a getter, setter or a deleter of a property object
- Section 98.4: Using properties without decorators
Chapter 99: Overloading
- Section 99.1: Operator overloading
- Section 99.2: Magic/Dunder Methods
- Section 99.3: Container and sequence types
- Section 99.4: Callable types
- Section 99.5: Handling unimplemented behaviour
Chapter 100: Polymorphism
- Section 100.1: Duck Typing
- Section 100.2: Basic Polymorphism
Chapter 101: Method Overriding
- Section 101.1: Basic method overriding
Chapter 102: User-Defined Methods
- Section 102.1: Creating user-defined method objects
- Section 102.2: Turtle example
methods Chapter 103: String representations of class instances: str and repr
- Section 103.1: Motivation
- Section 103.2: Both methods implemented, eval-round-trip style repr()
Chapter 104: Debugging
- Section 104.1: Via IPython and ipdb
- Section 104.2: The Python Debugger: Step-through Debugging with pdb
- Section 104.3: Remote debugger
Chapter 105: Reading and Writing CSV
- Section 105.1: Using pandas
- Section 105.2: Writing a TSV file
Chapter 106: Dynamic code execution with exec and eval
- Section 106.1: Executing code provided by untrusted user using exec, eval, or ast.literal_eval
- Section 106.2: Evaluating a string containing a Python literal with ast.literal_eval
- Section 106.3: Evaluating statements with exec
- Section 106.4: Evaluating an expression with eval
- Section 106.5: Precompiling an expression to evaluate it multiple times
- Section 106.6: Evaluating an expression with eval using custom globals
Chapter 107: PyInstaller - Distributing Python Code
- Section 107.1: Installation and Setup
- Section 107.2: Using Pyinstaller
- Section 107.3: Bundling to One Folder
- Section 107.4: Bundling to a Single File
Chapter 108: Data Visualization with Python
- Section 108.1: Seaborn
- Section 108.2: Matplotlib
- Section 108.3: Plotly
- Section 108.4: MayaVI
Chapter 109: The Interpreter (Command Line Console)
- Section 109.1: Getting general help
- Section 109.2: Referring to the last expression
- Section 109.3: Opening the Python console
- Section 109.4: The PYTHONSTARTUP variable
- Section 109.5: Command line arguments
- Section 109.6: Getting help about an object
Chapter 110: *args and **kwargs
- Section 110.1: Using **kwargs when writing functions
- Section 110.2: Using *args when writing functions
- Section 110.3: Populating kwarg values with a dictionary
- Section 110.4: Keyword-only and Keyword-required arguments
- Section 110.5: Using **kwargs when calling functions
- Section 110.6: **kwargs and default values
- Section 110.7: Using *args when calling functions
Chapter 111: Garbage Collection
- Section 111.1: Reuse of primitive objects
- Section 111.2: Eects of the del command
- Section 111.3: Reference Counting
- Section 111.4: Garbage Collector for Reference Cycles
- Section 111.5: Forcefully deallocating objects
- Section 111.6: Viewing the refcount of an object
- Section 111.7: Do not wait for the garbage collection to clean up
- Section 111.8: Managing garbage collection
Chapter 112: Pickle data serialisation
- Section 112.1: Using Pickle to serialize and deserialize an object
- Section 112.2: Customize Pickled Data
Chapter 113: Binary Data
- Section 113.1: Format a list of values into a byte object
- Section 113.2: Unpack a byte object according to a format string
- Section 113.3: Packing a structure
Chapter 114: Idioms
- Section 114.1: Dictionary key initializations
- Section 114.2: Switching variables
- Section 114.3: Use truth value testing
- Section 114.4: Test for "main" to avoid unexpected code execution
Chapter 115: Data Serialization
- Section 115.1: Serialization using JSON
- Section 115.2: Serialization using Pickle
Chapter 116: Multiprocessing
- Section 116.1: Running Two Simple Processes
- Section 116.2: Using Pool and Map
Chapter 117: Multithreading
- Section 117.1: Basics of multithreading
- Section 117.2: Communicating between threads
- Section 117.3: Creating a worker pool
- Section 117.4: Advanced use of multithreads
- Section 117.5: Stoppable Thread with a while Loop
Chapter 118: Processes and Threads
- Section 118.1: Global Interpreter Lock
- Section 118.2: Running in Multiple Threads
- Section 118.3: Running in Multiple Processes
- Section 118.4: Sharing State Between Threads
- Section 118.5: Sharing State Between Processes
Chapter 119: Python concurrency
- Section 119.1: The multiprocessing module
- Section 119.2: The threading module
- Section 119.3: Passing data between multiprocessing processes
Chapter 120: Parallel computation
- Section 120.1: Using the multiprocessing module to parallelise tasks
- Section 120.2: Using a C-extension to parallelize tasks
- Section 120.3: Using Parent and Children scripts to execute code in parallel
- Section 120.4: Using PyPar module to parallelize
Chapter 121: Sockets
- Section 121.1: Raw Sockets on Linux
- Section 121.2: Sending data via UDP
- Section 121.3: Receiving data via UDP
- Section 121.4: Sending data via TCP
- Section 121.5: Multi-threaded TCP Socket Server
Chapter 122: Websockets
- Section 122.1: Simple Echo with aiohttp
- Section 122.2: Wrapper Class with aiohttp
- Section 122.3: Using Autobahn as a Websocket Factory
- Section 123.1: Server side Implementation
- Section 123.2: Client side Implementation
Chapter 124: Python Networking
- Section 124.1: Creating a Simple Http Server
- Section 124.2: Creating a TCP server
- Section 124.3: Creating a UDP Server
- Section 124.4: Start Simple HttpServer in a thread and open the browser
- Section 124.5: The simplest Python socket client-server example
Chapter 125: Python HTTP Server
- Section 125.1: Running a simple HTTP server
- Section 125.2: Serving files
- Section 125.3: Basic handling of GET, POST, PUT using BaseHTTPRequestHandler
- Section 125.4: Programmatic API of SimpleHTTPServer
Chapter 126: Flask
- Section 126.1: Files and Templates
- Section 126.2: The basics
- Section 126.3: Routing URLs
- Section 126.4: HTTP Methods
- Section 126.5: Jinja Templating
- Section 126.6: The Request Object
Chapter 127: Introduction to RabbitMQ using AMQPStorm
- Section 127.1: How to consume messages from RabbitMQ
- Section 127.2: How to publish messages to RabbitMQ
- Section 127.3: How to create a delayed queue in RabbitMQ
Chapter 128: Descriptor
- Section 128.1: Simple descriptor
- Section 128.2: Two-way conversions
Chapter 129: tempfile NamedTemporaryFile
- Section 129.1: Create (and write to a) known, persistent temporary file
Chapter 130: Input, Subset and Output External Data Files using Pandas
- Section 130.1: Basic Code to Import, Subset and Write External Data Files Using Pandas
Chapter 131: Writing to CSV from String or List
- Section 131.1: Basic Write Example
- Section 131.2: Appending a String as a newline in a CSV file
Chapter 132: Unzipping Files
- Section 132.1: Using Python ZipFile.extractall() to decompress a ZIP file
- Section 132.2: Using Python TarFile.extractall() to decompress a tarball
Chapter 133: Working with ZIP archives
- Section 133.1: Examining Zipfile Contents
- Section 133.2: Opening Zip Files
- Section 133.3: Extracting zip file contents to a directory
- Section 133.4: Creating new archives
Chapter 134: Getting start with GZip
- Section 134.1: Read and write GNU zip files
Chapter 135: Stack
- Section 135.1: Creating a Stack class with a List Object
- Section 135.2: Parsing Parentheses
Chapter 136: Working around the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)
- Section 136.1: Multiprocessing.Pool
- Section 136.2: Cython nogil:
Chapter 137: Deployment
- Section 137.1: Uploading a Conda Package
Chapter 138: Logging
- Section 138.1: Introduction to Python Logging
- Section 138.2: Logging exceptions
Chapter 139: Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI)
- Section 139.1: Server Object (Method)
Chapter 140: Python Server Sent Events
- Section 140.1: Flask SSE
- Section 140.2: Asyncio SSE
Chapter 141: Alternatives to switch statement from other languages
- Section 141.1: Use what the language oers: the if/else construct
- Section 141.2: Use a dict of functions
- Section 141.3: Use class introspection
- Section 141.4: Using a context manager
Chapter 142: List destructuring (aka packing and unpacking)
- Section 142.1: Destructuring assignment
- Section 142.2: Packing function arguments
- Section 142.3: Unpacking function arguments
Chapter 143: Accessing Python source code and bytecode
- Section 143.1: Display the bytecode of a function
- Section 143.2: Display the source code of an object
- Section 143.3: Exploring the code object of a function
Chapter 144: Mixins
- Section 144.1: Mixin
- Section 144.2: Overriding Methods in Mixins
Chapter 145: Attribute Access
- Section 145.1: Basic Attribute Access using the Dot Notation
- Section 145.2: Setters, Getters & Properties
Chapter 146: ArcPy - Cursor Section 146.1: Printing one field's value for all rows of feature class in file geodatabase using Search
- Section 146.2: createDissolvedGDB to create a file gdb on the workspace
Chapter 147: Abstract Base Classes (abc)
- Section 147.1: Setting the ABCMeta metaclass
- Section 147.2: Why/How to use ABCMeta and @abstractmethod
Chapter 148: Plugin and Extension Classes
- Section 148.1: Mixins
- Section 148.2: Plugins with Customized Classes
Chapter 149: Immutable datatypes(int, float, str, tuple and frozensets)
- Section 149.1: Individual characters of strings are not assignable
- Section 149.2: Tuple's individual members aren't assignable
- Section 149.3: Frozenset's are immutable and not assignable
Chapter 150: Incompatibilities moving from Python 2 to Python
- Section 150.1: Integer Division
- Section 150.2: Unpacking Iterables
- Section 150.3: Strings: Bytes versus Unicode
- Section 150.4: Print statement vs. Print function
- Section 150.5: Dierences between range and xrange functions
- Section 150.6: Raising and handling Exceptions
- Section 150.7: Leaked variables in list comprehension
- Section 150.8: True, False and None
- Section 150.9: User Input
- Section 150.10: Comparison of dierent types
- Section 150.11: .next() method on iterators renamed
- Section 150.12: filter(), map() and zip() return iterators instead of sequences
- Section 150.13: Renamed modules
- Section 150.14: Removed operators <> and ``, synonymous with != and repr()
- Section 150.15: long vs. int
- Section 150.16: All classes are "new-style classes" in Python
- Section 150.17: Reduce is no longer a built-in
- Section 150.18: Absolute/Relative Imports
- Section 150.19: map()
- Section 150.20: The round() function tie-breaking and return type
- Section 150.21: File I/O
- Section 150.22: cmp function removed in Python
- Section 150.23: Octal Constants
- Section 150.24: Return value when writing to a file object
- Section 150.25: exec statement is a function in Python
- Section 150.26: encode/decode to hex no longer available
- Section 150.27: Dictionary method changes
- Section 150.28: Class Boolean Value
- Section 150.29: hasattr function bug in Python
Chapter 151: 2to3 tool
- Section 151.1: Basic Usage
Chapter 152: Non-ocial Python implementations
- Section 152.1: IronPython
- Section 152.2: Jython
- Section 152.3: Transcrypt
Chapter 153: Abstract syntax tree
- Section 153.1: Analyze functions in a python script
Chapter 154: Unicode
- Section 154.1: Encoding and decoding
Chapter 155: Unicode and bytes
- Section 155.1: Encoding/decoding error handling
- Section 155.2: File I/O

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