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AiJuaculture

· CENTER ·

Recirculating

Aquaculture^

2nd Edition

By

M!CHAEL B. TIMMONS AND JAMES M EBELING

Cayuga Aqua Ventn� 2010

NRAC Publication No. 401-

DEDICATION

We would like to eo-dedicate this new text

to Dr. Wheaton (Fred) and Dr. W.D. Youngs.

Fred was James Ebeling's major professor for

his PhD at University of Maryland. In fact,

many of us in the industry had Fred as our

major advisor. Frcd was way ahead of his time

1n^1977 and wrote what became known as the

Aquacultural Engineer's Bible, "Aquacultural

Engineering", in 1977. This text was the foundation for many teaching

programs around the world and remains popular still. Most of the

technical information published in this 1977 text remains valid today 30

years later! Fred was a co-author on our earlier text in 2002

"Recirculating Aquaculture Systems" by Timmons, Ebeling, Wheaton,

Summerfclt and Vinci (2002 by Cayuga Aqua Ventures, lthaca, NY).

Frcd has chaired over 50 graduate committees. Many of the PhD

students have gone on to be the leaders in the aquaculture research and

teaching community. Frcd has always been a very supportive individual

and has continued to mentor us as we progress through our careers.

Dr. Whcalon developed one of the first aquacultural engineering

research and extension programs in the U.S. His research has included

recirculating systems, seafood processing, automation of oyster

shocking, and a variety of other topics related to aquacultural

engineering. He has published widely producing over 100 articles and

three books. He was one of the founding members of and has served as

president of the Aquacultural Engineering Society. Dr. Wheaton recently

retired (June 2010) as Director of the USDA Northeastern Regional

Aquaculture Ccntcr (5 years) and was formerly Chairman and Professor,

Department of Biological Resources Engineering, University of

Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Dr. Wheaton was a faculty member

for 42 years at the University of Maryland.

We all owe a great deal of gratitude to Dr. Wheaton for his career

efforts as a developer and supporter of the aquaculturc community. For

this and mnny other reasons, we dedicate this book to him.

NRAC Publication No. 401-

Our second

dedication goes to Dr.

William D. Youngs,

Professor Emeritus,

Department of Natural

Resources, Comell

University. Dr. Youngs

spent over 30 years at

Comell teaching and

mentoring students in

fishery science and

aquaculture. Dr. Youngs

is most recognized for

one of the seminal texts .

in fisheries "Principles of Fishery Science", that he co-authored �1th J?r. w. Harry Evcrhart, a book that many keep in their personal hbranes

(published 1981, Cornell University Press , p. 349).

For me (Timmons) it was a phone call from Bill in 1984 th�t was �ny

introduction to the world of aquaculture and, in particula�, recnculatm�

aquaculture. The phone call went something like "What SI

�e pump do

need to move 1 000 gpm of water ngainst 10 feet of head? I_ responded

with my own q�cstion, "Why do you want to know that?:· �Ill took me under his wing and we spent many hours toge�er bUJldmg the^ ���

recirculating aquaculture system at the Comell Dauy Res�arch farm.

was also the first General Manager of my commercial aquaculture -

venture, Fingerlakcs Aquaculturc (sec Chapter 17).

Bill has always been a constnnt msptra ton·^ ·^ t"^ t^ o^ !Il .e^ I^ truly value Bill's..

advice on a wide variety of subjects, but I constder him unequaled_ m

experience and scientific knowledge on fisheries manageme�t as apph�d to recirculnting aquaculture. I also hav� the honor of bemg the �n � person that Bill ever took �s?in� and failed to even have a fish stnke.

We hope to eliminate that dJstmctJOn soon.

Thanks Bill!

July

NRAC Publication No. 401-

NRAC Publication No. 401-

FOREWORD

Aquaculture has a long history with its origins dating back to at least

475 BC in China (Milne, 1973). Trout culture started in Germany in 1741

(Leitritz and Lewis, 1980) but it wasn't until the 1880's that trout culture

came to the U.S. This was the first U.S. aquaculture effort. However,

aquaculture was not of much importance until the late 1940s when it was

discovered that aquaculture methods could be used to raise fish for planting

in natural waters as a means to supplement natural spawning. At this time

the U.S. fish and Wildlife Service began growing trout (Oncorhynchus

mykiss), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), largemouth bass (Micropterus

salmoides), and other species for planting. From its U. S. initiation in the

1880s the U.S. the trout industry grew slowly until the late 1940s or early

1950s when it began to expand more rapidly. In the 1960s the U.S. catfish

(Ictalurus punctatus) industry got its start and began to grow rapidly.

Although the catfish industry had its ups and downs over the years, it is an

excellent success story. The catfish industry started from essentially no

commercial production in 1960 to over 600 million pounds of production in

2000. With the rise of the trout and catfish industries in the U.S. there has

been experimentation and now commercial production of many other

species of fish including but not limited to striped bass (Morone saxatilis),

salmon (several species), yellow perch (Percaflavescens), tilapia (several

species), blue gill, small mouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), several

species of bait fish, goldfish (Carassius aura/us), koi, red fish, sturgeon

(several species), a wide variety of tropical fish, and a variety of other fish

species. Tremendous progress has been made in fish culture in development

of production systems, nutrition, genetics, engineering, disease control,

physiology, basic understanding of fish biology and other areas. However,

much remains to be done in all of these areas.

Shellfish aquaculture has been practiced in the U.S. since about the

1850's, but serious culture really became more popular only in the last 30

years. Species such as blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), various species of

oysters and clams, shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and others have been raised in

aquaculture settings. Most shellfish aquaculture in the U.S. uses leased

bottom systems, raft and rack culture, up-wellers, and/or some floating

systems using either lines or cages. U.S. shellfish culture is almost

exclusively done in salt or brackish water while, except for salmon, most

fish culture is in fresh or brackish water. However, salt water fish culture is

rapidly increasing. Developmen t of shellfish culture is lagging behind fish

culture in areas of nutrition, engineering, disease control, genetics, basic

jy Foreword

Biological Resources Engineering from (^) the University (^) f M College Park M!!rvJ d 1

b h

0 ary and,

operatmg on aquacultural systems. In November^.^ ,^ -J^ ao^ ,^ w^ ere^ e^ worked o n the kinetics of biofilters

2006 Ja 1

F lb · h ·.^.^

, rnes was se ected as a u ng t Semor Spec1ahsts (^) Candidate (Council for Interna ·

Exchange of Scholars, Washington DC).^1

tiona

Dr. Ebeling has been involved in aquaculture for over 25

cuIt ure d over 20 spec1es of fish. He spent three years at the M· years and h^ as

R esearch and T.^.^ ancu ture·^ I

rammg Center University of }J · ·

d.^

' (^) �awau as (^) a research coor mat _

or, and on� year as project manager (^) for the desi construction of the "F1sb Barn" at the North Carolina State U a

. � D

nd

Eb e mg a so spentJ · 1 fi1ve years as a research and extens· mvers1ty· ·^ r·

P.k

1on assoc1ate at the

1 eton Research and Extension Center Ohio State u · ·

Oh.10 where he was rcspons1ble for design construction^.^ '^ mvers1ty,^ p·iketon

(^) d ·

'

th 1 · ·.^

' (^) 'an mamtenance of e aquacu ture facll•t•cs and for maintaining the fish a II C en ert A quaculture.^ Extens1on.^ s we^ as 10r the.., Program He (^) spent · F. 1. I ·^.^.

· (^) SIX years at the 1 es 1 wate (^1) nslltutc as an EnvJrorunental Research E (^) ·.

b as1c and apphed research as well as the application of mo·.^ ngmee1, work^ mg m.^ ·

compu ert.^.^ n1 onng and·1^ · control to b10log•cai and aquatic ecosystems (^) D Eb (^) I. ·

c unenti Y �mp oyeI d as a Research Engineer by Aquaculture.^ r.^ e mg^ IS

Technolog•es, LLC, New Orleans, LA. E s^ stems

• mail:jebeling@Beadfiit

y .

phone 504-837-5575. 1 ers.com,

August 1, 2010

V

ACKNO\VLEDGEMENTS

The book authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to Dr. Fred Whcaton who has been involved in aquacultural engineering for over 38 years. Frcd developed the first aquacultural engineering curriculum in the U.S., which was offered at the University of Maryland, and authored the first aquacultural engineering textbook "Aquacultural Engineering, John

Wiley and Sons, New York, original^ edition^ (1977).^ Graduates of^ this

curriculum are located^ throughout^ the^ U.S.^ and^ in^ many international

locations. He has published widely producing over^200 articles and three

books. He was one of the founding members of and has served as president of the Aquacultural^ Engineering^ Society.^ He^ is^ currently employed^ as Professor and Chairman, Department ofBiological Resources Engineering, University of Maryland,^ College^ Park,^ Maryland.^ We^ will^ always^ be extremely grateful for all the help Fred has given us over the years and i n his assistance and support in creating this new text. We would also like to pmticularly thank Mr. Joe Hankins, Director and the Conservation Funds Freshwater Institute (Shepherdstown, WV) who supported the development and writing of the earlier book "Recirculating

Aquaculture^ Systems" (published^ in^ 2002)^ and^ who^ eo-sponsored^ the

Cornell-Frcshwater Institute Short Course from^ 1999,^ which instigated the

writing of the first text (we got tired of printing so many handouts, so we wrote the book instead). The first text was financially supported in part by the Northeastern Regional Aquaculturc Ccnter and continues to distribute the book. Also to^ the^ NRAES^ (Naturul^ Resources,^ Agriculture,^ and Engineering Services, a Land Grant Outrcach^ program, lthaca, NY; sec www.NRAES.org for a complete list of available publications and resource materials) who permitted theuseofsomc materials previously published in NRAES-49 "Engineering Aspects of Intensive Aquaculture". We owe a deep debt of^ gratitude to Dr. Raul Piedrahita (Professor Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of

California, Davis, CA^95616 U.S.A. phone^ 530-752-2780,^ E-mail

[email protected]) who carefully edited the entire text, chapter by chapter (this was to be able to translate the entire text into Spanish, currently available from www.c-a-v.net), and made many thoughtful suggestions and corrected many mistakes we had over-looked. Thank you Raulll And, then^ Mr.^ Erik Kopachc (my recent graduate sh1dent) did a final text editing and conversion of previous files into camera ready format for the printer. Thank you Erik! Finally, we would like to express our thanks to the several reviewers of the first text that made the book as practical and complete as possible. Our thanks go to each of them:

vi (^) Acknowledgements

Joh n Ewart Extension

Dona ld Wcbstcr Extension

Michacl Ianne llo Industr y

Jerry Redden Industry

Glenn Snapp and Industry Terry McCarthy

Thomas Losordo Re search

Gordon Durant Government

William Foulkrod Secondary Education

Aquaculture Extension Specialist, Delaware Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service, Graduate College ofMarine Studies, University of Delaware.

Marine Science Educator, University of Maryland Cooperative Extension

General Manager, Fingerlakes Aquaculture, Groton, NY

Director, Worcester County Economic Development Office, Snow Hill, MD 21863 E-mail: [email protected] Past Manager, AquaMar, Pocomoke, MD

Owners, Water Management Technologies, Baton Rouge, LA

Professor, North Carolina State University

Fish Culture Coordinator-Tec hnical Development, Fish Culture Section, Fish and Wildlife Branch, Ontario Ministry ofNatural Resources

Teacher, Secondary Education, Syracuse, NY

vu

We would also like to thank se veral individuals who made contributions to the book, specifically:

Chapter 4 Culture Units:

• (^) Dr. Steven T. Summerfelt. Director, Aquaculture Systems Research The Conservation Funds Freshwater Institute, 1098 Turner R�ad, Shepher dstown, WV 25443; 304-876-2815 ph; 304- 870-2208 fax; E-mail [email protected]

Chapter 5 Solids Capture:

• (^) Dr. Steven T. Summerfel t and Dr. Brian Vinci. The Conservation Funds Freshwater Institute, 1098 Turner Roa d,

Shepher dstown, WV 25443; 304-876-2815 ph; 304-870-2208 fax;

E-mail s.summerfelt@freshwaterinstitute .org or b .vinci@freshwaterinstitu te.org

Chapter 9 Denitrification:

• (^) Dr. Jaap van Rijn. Head, Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Facully of Agriculture, Food and Envir onment, The Hebrew University ofJerusalem, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel. voice: 972-8-9489302, E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 1 1 Ozonation and UV-Irradiation:

• (^) Dr. Helge Liltved. Re search Manager, Environmental Technology; Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Branch Office South, Televeien 3, N-4879 Grimstad, Norway; Internet · http://www.niva.no; Phone: +47 9 1576029; E-mail: [email protected]
• (^) Dr. Steven T. Summerfelt. Director, Aquaculture Systems Research, The Conservation Funds Freshwater Institute, 1 098 Turner Road, Shepherdstown, WV 25443; 304-876-2815 ph; 304- 870-2208 fax; E-mail: s.summerfelt@freshwater institute .org

Chapter 15 System Management and Operations:

• (^) Mr. Don Webster. Marine Science Educator, Sea Grant Extension Program, University of Maryland Cooperative Extension, Wye

Research & Education Center, PO Box 169, Queenstown MD

21658; Phone: 4 10-827-5377 ext 127; E-mail: [email protected]

• (^) Dr. Joe M. Regenstein. Professor, Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ilhaca, NY 14853; E-mail: [email protected]

X (^) Acknowledgements

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword..................... ............................................................................ i

Ackno\vledgcmcnts.............. ................................ ......................................v

Chapter 1: Introduction to Recirculating Aquaculturc Technology

1.0 Background .................. ...... .............................. ....................... )

1.1 The Optimist ic View....... ........................................................ 2

1.2 Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) ............................. 2

1.3 RAS Advantages ......... ............................................................ 6

1.4 World Market Needs..... ....... ......................... ........................ 10

1.5 Market Dynamics..... ............... .............................................. 11

1.6 Overview of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS)... ... 13

1. 7 Can RAS Compete....... ......................................... ................ 15

1.8 Is Aquaculture For You ......................................................... 22

1 .9 Some Quick Case Histories ........................ ....... .................... 23

1.10 History Lesson on Failure s .......... .......... ... ............................. 24

1.11 Interact ions Between Objectives, Resources, B usi ness

Strategy, and Desig n............................ .................................. 26

1.12 Tem1inology and nomcnclature ............................................. 28

1.13 Websites for Reference^ ..........................................................^30

1.14 Summary and the Come ll Short Course .... ............................

1.15 Refcrences ............................ ................................................. 37

Chapter 2: Water Quality

2.0 Introduction ...................... ............. ............................ ............ 39

2.1 Phy sical Pr operties ................................................................

2.2 Water Quantity Requirements ...............................................

2.3 Water Sources...................... ................ ..................................

2.4 Water Quality Standar ds............................... .. .......... .............

2.5 Water Quality Parameters ....... ................ ....................... ........ 50

2.6 Mca surernent s^ ............... ............ ................................... ..........^66

xi

xii Table of Contents

Table of Contents

 - 3.0 Introduction Chapter 3: Mass Balances, Loading Rates and Fish Growth - 3.1 Production Terms - 3.2 Water Quality Design Targets - 3.3 Fish Growth - 3.5 References 1 J 3.4 Design Exainples lOI - 4.0 Introduction Chapter 4: Culture Units - 4.1 CultureTanks l - 4.2 Stocking Density - 4.3 Design Examples - 4.4 Culture Tank Engineering - 4.5 Tank Water Vclocitics l - 4.6 Round Tan.ks l - 4.7 Corncll Dual-Drain Design.................................................. l - 4.9 Carrying Capacity Issues 4.8 Raccways .15l - 4.10 Stock Management Issues - 4.11 Scale Issues. - 4.12 Mechanisms To Remove Dead Fish - 4.13 References 

• 5.0 Overview Chapter 5: Solids Capture
• 5.1 Solids Balance
• 5.2 Basic Design Parameters for Round Tanks
• 5.3 Solids Generation
• 5.4 TSS Physical Characteristics l
• 5.5 Removal Mechanisms
• 5.6 Design Example- Solids Capture
• 5.7 References - 6.0 Introduction Chapter 6: Waste Management & Disposal - 6.1 EPA Effluent Limitation Guidelines - - 6.2 Waste Management - 6.3 Waste Characteristics - 6.4 Waste Management Overview - 6.5 Storage, Thickening, And Stabilization - 6.6 Utilization/Disposal ............................................................. - 6. 7 Design Example- GeoBags - 6.8 References - 7.0 Introduction Chapter 7: Bioflltration - 7. L Nitrification (Autotrophic Bacteria) .................................... - 7.2 Nitrification (Microbial Floc) - 7.3 Impact of Water Quality Factors on Nitrification - 7.4 Biofilters - 7.5 References - 8.0 Introduction Chapter 8: Biofllter Design - 8.1 Generalized Engineering Considerations - 8.2 Design Parameters: Where do you start?............................. - 8.3 Design Example: Biofiltration............................................. - 8.4 Design Example: Trickling Tower - 8.5 Design Example: R.BC - 8.6 Design Example- Floating Bead Biofilter.................... - 8. 7 Basic Design Concepts: Fluidized-Bed Sand Biofilter. - 8.8 Design Example: Microbead Biofilter. - 8.9 Design Example: Moving Bed BioReactor - 8.10 References
  • 9.0 Introduction Chapter 9: Denitrification
  • 9. 1 Background
  • 9 2 Unit Processes for Denitrification
  • 9.3 Factors Controlling Denitrification
• 9.4 Effect ofDenitrification on Alkalinity.
• 9.5 Effect of Denitrification on Phosphate Removal.................
• 9.6 Effluent versus On-line Treatment ..............................
  • 9.7 Types ofReactors.
  • 9.8 MBBR Processes for Denitrification.
• 9.9 Design ofDenitrification Reactors ...................
  • 9.10 Design Example.
  • 9 1 1 References ...............................4
  • 10.0 Introduction ........................................................................ Chapter 10: Gas Transfer - 10 1 Dissolved Gases-Fundamentals. - 10.2 Gas Transfer - l0.3 Gas Transfer Optious.................. - 10.4 Degassing: Carbon Dioxide (Nitrogen) - 10.5 Design Example- Aeration/Oxygenation ...... - 10.6 References - 11.0 Introduction Chapter 11: Ozontion and UV-Irradiation - 11.1 UV Irradiation ....................... - 1 1 .2 Ozonation.
    • 11.3 Factor Influencing Disinfection Effeciency ........................
    • 11.4 Aquaculture Wastewater Characterization.
    • 11.5 Inactivation OfFish Pathogens.
      • 1 1 .6 Other Methods of Disinfection ............................................5
      • 1l.7 Design Example Influent Treatment
      • 1 1 .8 Conclusions
      • 1 1 .9 References ........................................... - 12.0 Fluid Mechanics ..................................5 Chapter 12: Fluid Mechanics and Pumps - 1 2 1 Frictional Losses....................... - 12.2 Fitting Losses - 12.3 Design Example: Head Loss - 12.4 Measurement ofFiow. - 12.5 Pumps and Pumping - 12.6 Airlift Pumps - 12.7 Design Example- Circulation - 12.8 References ...........................................................................56 - 13.0 Introduction ..... Chapter 13: System Monitoring and Control - 13.1 Parameters to Monitor - 13.2 Monitoring Sensors and Equipment Options....................... - 13.3 Automatic PhoneDialers.............. - 13.4 Backups Systems are not an Option! ........ - 1 3 .5 Computer Based Systems - 13.6 Design Example-Monitoring - 1 3 .7 System Design and Maintenance........ - 13.8 Construction Hints............................................................... - 14.0 Introduction Chapter 14: Building Environmental Control - 14 1 Heat Transfer ...59 - 14.2 Air Quality Control - 14.3 Building Considerations ...................................................... - 15.0 Introduction and Site selection ............................................ Chapter· 15: System Management and Operations - 15.1 Backup Systems - 15.2 LaborntoryFacilities. ......................6 - 15.3 Quarantine Facilities.. ....6 - 15.4 Waste Management :............................................
• 15.5 Storage-Feed and Chemicals XVI Table of Contents
• 15.6 Fish Product Handling ..................6
  • 15.7 Transporting Live Fish .6
• 15.8 Purging and Off-Flavor
  • 15.9 Post Harvest Handling ..
• 1 5 1 0 Feed Storage
• 1 5 1 1 Handling Fish
• 1 5 1 2 Labor
  • 1 5 1 3 Acccss
  • 1 5 1 4 Operations
  • 1 5 1 5 Miscellaneous Operations
  • 1 5 1 6 Record Keeping and Maintenance
  • 1 5 1 7 How to Collect, Analyze & Interpret Data
  • 1 5 1 8 Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
  • 1 5 19 References
  • 16.0 Biosecurity. Chap ter 16: Fish Health Management
  • 16.1 Practices to Reduce the Risk ofPathogen Introduction
  • 16.2 Practices to Reduce Pathogen Spread. ..
  • 16.3 Reducing Susceptibility to Infection and Disease
  • 16.4 Monitoring and Surveillance
  • 16.5 Biosecurity Check
    • 16.6 Diagnosis
  • 16.7 Treatment.
  • 16.8 Aquaculture Chemotherapeutics
  • 16.9 Treatment Calculations
  • 16.10 Fish Disease Diagnostic Services
  • 16. 1 1 References
  • 17.0 Introduction Chapter 17: Economic Realities and Management Issues
  • 1 7 1 Case History of Fingerlakes Aquaculture (FLA) LLC
  • 17.2 Lessons Learned .................................................................. - 17.3 Investment Choices Table of Contents - 17.4 Species Selection - 17.5 Competitiveness of RAS - 17.6 Infrastructure & Capitalization - 17.7 Scale Effects and Risk - 17.8 Labor Requirements - 17.9 Predicted Costs ofProduction - 17.10 Predicted Costs ofRAS Produced Tilapia. - 1 7 1 1 Economic Comparison to Broilers and Catfish - 17.12 References - 18.0 Introduction Chapter 18: Fish Nutrition and Feeds - 1 8 1 Feed Management - 18.2 Selection - 18.3 Growth Performance - 18.4 Feed Quality - 18.5 Physical Characteristics - 18.6 Practical Feed Formulation. - 18.7 Important Aspects O f Aquaculture Feeds - 18.8 Physiological Relationships. - 18.9 Water Chemistry And Dietary Needs - 1 8 1 0 Functional Anatomy ofDigestion - 1 8. 1 1 Minerals - 18.12 Vitamins - 1 8 1 3 Feedstuff Selection - 1 8 1 4 Feedstuff Digestibility - 1 8 1 5 Pelleted, Expanded and Extruded Feeds - 18.16 Floating Feeds - 1 8 1 8 References ·-···--·--·--·... 1 8 1 7 Summary 8 0I

xviii Table of Contents

Chapter 19: Aquaponics: Integrating Fish and Plant Culture

19.0 Introduction .........................................................................^807

19.1 System Design ..................................................................... 8 1 0

19.2 Fish Production .................................................................... 8 1 5

19.3 Solids .......................... ......................................................... 821

19.4 Biofiltration ......................................................................... 826

19.5 Hydroponic Subsystems ...................................................... 830

1 9.6 Sump ............................ ........................................................ 834

19.7 Construction Materials ........................................................^835

19.8 · Component Ratios ........ .......................................................^836

19.9 Plant Growth Requirements ................................................ 839

1 9. 1 0 Nutrient Dynamics .............................................................. 841

19. 1 1 Vegetable Selection .............................................................

19.12 Crop Production Systems .................................................... 850

19.13 Pest and Disease Control .. ...................................................

19.14 Approaches to System Design ............................................. 852

1 9. 1 5 Economics ....... ....................................................................^858

19.16 Prospects For The Future..................................................... 860

1 9. 1 7 References ...................... .................................................... 861

Appendix

Appendix Directory ........... ............................................................... 865

Tables

A-

A-

A-

A-

A-

A-

A-

Conversion �actors For Conunonly

Used Terms in Aquaculture ..................................................... 867

Fish Health Conversion Factors............................................... 874

Broad List of Conversion Factors: Inch:Pound (IP) to System

International (SI).......................................... .... ... .... ............... .. 875

Physical Properties of Water......... .......................................... 877

Percentage of Free Ammonia (as NI-h) in Freshwater at Varying

pH and Water Temperatures............................................. ....... 878

Dissolved Oxygen (mg 02 per Liter, ppm) at Saturation in

Freshwater, Brackish Water, and Seawater at Different

Temperatures ........................................................................... 879

Hardness Conversion to Other Units of Measure .................... 880

Table of Contents

A-8 Standard U.S. Atmospheric Pressure at Different Altitudes .... 880

A-9 Alkalinity Supplement Properties ........... ................................. 881

A-10 Opening Sizes ofU.S. Sieve Series Designation Number. ...... 882

A-ll Dry Air Components ............................................................... 882

A-12 Solubility of Four Major Gases in Water................................. 882

A-13 Maximum and Minimum Monthly Average Outside

Temperatures for Selected USA Locations in Degrees °F....... 883

A-14 Unit Area Thermal Resistance's (R-Values) ofTypical Building

Construction and Insulation Materials..... .... ........................... 884

A-15 Allowable Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide at Standard

Temperature and Pressure to the Nearest 25 ppm .................. 885

A-16 Valve Basics and Selection Tips... .......................................... 886

A-17 Plastic Properties for Various Types of Pipes .. ............... ........ 887

A-18 Size and Properties of PVC Pipe Schedule 40 and 80 ............. 888

A-19 PVC Pipe Friction Chart for Pipe and Length Loss for Schedule

A-20 PVC Pipe Friction Chart for Pipe and Length Loss for Schedule

A-21 Tank Volumes for Various Depths and Diameters ................. 891

A-22 Temperature Equivalents Between Celsius and Fahrenheit .... 892

A-23 Electrical Measurements.......................................................... 893

A-24 Maximum length of wire in feet for 2% maximum voltage drop.

Ifvoltage drop is greater than 2%, efficiency ofthe equipment in

the circuit is severely decreased and the life of the equipment

will be decreased ..................................... ................................ 894

A-25 Current carrying capacity of hard-usage flexible cords (Type S,

ST, SO, STO, SJ, SJT, SJO, SJTO) ......................................... 895

A-26 Full load currents in amperes for single phase alternating-current

n1otors ...................................................................................... 895

A-27 Full load currents in amperes for three phase squirrel cage and

wound rotor motors ................................................................. 895

A-28 Recommended pipe sizes for standard air (0.075 lbs/ft3) for

three pipe air velocities ........................... ................................. 896

A-29 Area Under the Normal Distribution Curve ............................ 897

A-30 Percentage Points of the Student's t-Distribution.................... 899

xix

2 Chapter I Introduction

research universities and commercial equipment suppliers. In addition,

t\vo new chapters on biofiltration and denitrification have been added

and a consistent design example for an Omega Fish Commercial

Production System. Some chapters remain largely the same, for example

�hapter 3 Mass Balances, Loading Rates, and Fish Growth. Some things

JUSt never change!

1.1 THE OPTIMISTIC VIEW

Peter F. Dmcker, a world recognized business leader and economic

fo!ecaster, predicts that aquaculture -the farming of nquatic organisms

will be one of three major economic opportunities in the new

millennium. Everyone everywhere is either eating more fish or thinking

they should! Changes in dietary patterns and the fact that the US Surgeon

General now recommends eating fish as a significant protein source for

the diet are strong indicators that opportunities in aquaculture will

continue to expand. The US catfish industry is a ready example of how

fast aquaculture fish markets can grow; i.e., this market grew by 100,

tons (220 million lbs) in the mid 90's. The Chilean salmon industry has

�rown from $159 million industry in 1991 to exporting over $ 1. 7 billion

m 2005, and now employs 53,000 people. The production of tilapia has

been exponential in the last several years to the point that the US market

demand for tilapia has gone from essentially nothing to importing the

equ1va!ent of 270,000 tons (600 million lbs) in year 2005.

We believe that aquaculture is the most probable and feasible

solution to providing the seafood products for this ever increasing market

demand and shrinking supply of product from the oceans. Aquaculture is

an environmentally responsible alternative to fishing. It provides a

consistent and reliable source of high quality, fresh seafood that is

nutritious, safe to eat, and can be reasonably priced.

1.2 RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS (RAS)

Fisheries products are the last mass marketed food being supplied to

consumers by "hunter-gatherers". This method of bringing product to

market is rapidly becoming obsolete, and i s no longer able to meet

cunent market needs. As a result, aquaculturc is the fastest growing

segment of agriculture, and is now supplying over half of all seafood

consumed (see Table l. l ). Note that when the portion of wild catch used

for animal feeds is removed (33% of total), aquaculture supplied seafood

accounts for 45% of the total supply.

Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) 3

Table 1.1 Contributions from Wild Catch and Aquaculture (fisheries data from

the FAO Fisheries Global lnfom1ation System site, May 2010.

www.fao.orLifi�is�

Million Ton

Production 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007 es^2020 timated

Wild Catch 19.2 34.7^ 63.7^ 68.2 85.9^ 96.8 99.3^ 129.8"

Aquaculture 0.6 2.0 3.5 7.3 16.8 45.7 55.4^ 103.2^13

Total 19.8 36.7 67.2 75.5 1 02.7 142.5 154.7 233.

% from (^) 3% 5% 5% 1 0 % 16% 32% 36% 44%

Aquacultu re

World Population 2.556 3.040 3.709 4.453 5.283 6.082 6.670 7. (billions)

Per Capita

Food Fish 5.2 8.0 1 2. 1 1 1 .3 12.9 15.6 1 7.^0 1 7. lc

sueeiy, ks

NB: (^) Approximately 33% of the Capture Fish are converted to fish meal/oil A Assumes 1.5% increase in capture fisheries production per year (Delgado et al.

8 Assumes 2. 8 % increase in aquaculture production per year (Dclgado et al. 2002)

cAs projected by Delgado et al. (2002)

AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

Seafood is only as good as the water in which it lives. Aquaculturists

control the quality of the water, so the seafood they produce can be fi:ee

of environmental contaminants. Consumers have demonstrated a marked

preference for cultured/farmed seafood because it i s more consistent in

quality and presentation and i t tends to have a milder taste than wild

seafood.

Aquaculture systems can be extensive, semi-intensive, or intensive,

depending upon the number of organisms grown per volume of water

and the water source and supply. Pond culture is extensive, cage culture

is semi-intensive but intensive within the cage, and RAS are intensive

systems. Pond and cage systems are open-air, and therefore there is

always a risk of air or water-borne contaminants. Because water qunlity

control is more difficult in pond and cage systems, the number of

4 Chapter 1 Introduction

organisms that can be grown effectively is limited. In this book as noted

by the title, we arc concentrating on recirculatiog aquaculture systems

(RAS). The principles of RAS for the water^ environment can be

employed in the open air, but you lose total control of the environment.

Typical Raceway type system

Conventional aquaculturc methods, such as outdoor pond systems

and net pen systems, are not sustainable in the long term, due to

significant environmental issues and their inability to guarantee the

safety of their products to the consumer. Conversely, indoor fish

production using RAS is sustainable, infinitely expandable,

cnvironmentaJJy compatible, and has the ability to guarantee both the

safety and the quality of the fish produced throughout the year.

Outdoor pond (warm water systems, e.g., catfish) and net pen

aquacultme systems (cool water, e.g., salmon) are disadvantaged by

their:

• (^) Large footprint requirements
• (^) Limited appropriate natural sites
• (^) Environmental issues with respect to the management of the fish

excrement

• (^) Geographical limitations due to the need for a perfect growing

climate

• (^) Vulnerability to disease, predators, and natUTal disasters via their

outdoor uncontrollable environment

Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) 5

Typical net-pen aquaculture

Outdoor pond and net pen-based systems are significantly

disadvantaged with respect to the potential for disease, which could

result in culture loss. Diseases in fish systems arc transferred by direct

water contact with diseased organisms. Indoor systems start with po table

water and unless diseased fish or fish carrying diseases are introduced

into the culture system, there is minimal potential for disease

introduction. And if there is a disease event, effective treatment is much

more manageable tban what a fish culturalist faces with traditional

outdoor systems.

The outdoor pond and net pen-based systems are also disadvantaged

by their inability to supply a consistent product due to difficulties

controlling the growing cycles, which then creates peaks and valleys of

supply available to the market. Finally, issues related to escapement are

of major concern: particularly with biotechnology modified species. In

such cases, RAS becomes the only acceptable culture technique because

the animals cannot escape an. indoor RAS and will, therefore, not have

any impact on the natural popuiations.

8 Chapter 1 Introduction

systems means that they can be built closer to the consumer and

replicated rapidly.

Indoor aquaculture is probably the only potential method that could

be used to ensure a 100% safe source of seafood, free from all chemicals

and heavy metals. With increasing consumer concerns about food safety,

aquaculture producers using RAS have an unprecedented opportunity to

meet the demands for safe seafood. Attributes of fresher, safer, and

locally raised product arc clear advantages for RAS produced seafood.

Because RAS can be set up to produce the same volume of fish every

week, week in and week out, these systems have a competitive marketing

advantage over outdoor tank and pond systems, which are seasonal and

subject to environmental disaster beyond the control of the operator.

WATER REQUIREMENTS, USE, AND CONSERVATION

Traditional intensive fish farming systems use flowing water

resources for two purposes:

• (^) to transport oxygen to the fish, and
• (^) to carry the waste produced in the system (metabolic by-products

and other materials) away so that they do not accumulate

in/around the fish farm to undesirable levels.

More recently, the carrying capacity of a flowing water fish farm has

also become limited by imposition of state or federal discharge

regulations. For example, traditional trout culture requires relatively

large volume water resources to produce fish in a single-pass tank and

serial-reuse raceway system.

Clear Springs Trout Company

(Buhl, Idaho), established in 1966,

produced 10 million kilograms of

trout in 2004, and is the world's

single largest producer of rainbow

trout for human consumption

(personal communication, Randy

"RULE OF TllUMB"

50 lb production per gal/min

of flow per annum

(6 kg/yr per Lpm)

MacMillan, Clear Springs Food Company). According to MacMillan

(2006), Clear Springs non-consumptively uses 22.6 m^3 /s > (360,

gal/min) of water flow for up to five serial-reuses through concrete

raceways. The only effluent treatment is either quiescent zone settling

within the raceways or sometimes full-flow settling following the

raceways. Low phosphorous feeds are used to help minimize effluent

phosphorus and comply with NPDES permit requirements. MacMillan

also said that depending on facility design, they produce 37 to 7 1 lb (

to 32 kg) per gpm offlow per annum (4.5 to 8.5 kg per Lpm).

RAS Advantages 9

Fortunately, serial-reuse systems may not have to actually capture

large percentages of waste solids for their average discharge to meet

concentration-based effluent limits on TSS (total suspended solids), even

in Idaho where permits issued by NPDES (National Pollution Discharge

Elimination System-EPA promulgated) limit fish farm effluents to

monthly average suspended solids concentration of 5 mg!L (net).

Similarly, serial-reuse systems may not have to capture large percentages

of waste solids under typical fish production levels, i.e., 50 lb production

per year per 1 gal/min or 6 kg/yr per Lpm, because a simple mass

balance shows that only about 5 mg/L of total suspended solids

concentration would be added to the flow if averaged over the entire day.

Also, nutrient limits (P, K, etc.) are becoming a discharge issue.

However, because of the large water volumes used in single-pass and

serial-reuse production systems, it is not realistic for farms such as Clear

Springs Trout Company to remove nutrients from their effluents (IDEQ,

1998). Therefore, some treatment (often using settling basins) is used to

ensure that spikes in TSS are not discharged, although overall waste

capture efficicncics may only be 25-50% within serial-reuse systems

(Mudrak, 1981); this topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 5 Solids

Capture. ·

To abate the environmental impact of aquaculture, production

practices and technologies are being adopted to minimize waste

production, conserve water, and concentrate wastes into smaller flows

during fish culture, thus the heightened interest in RAS. As mentioned

above, traditional flowing water systems can produce approximately 6 kg

of fish annually for eve1y 1 Lpm of water flow. By reusing or recycling

80 to 90% of the water prior to discharge, partial-reuse systems can

produce as much as 48 kg of fish annually for every l Lpm of make-up

water flow, i.e., 400 lb of fish annually for every gallon per minute of

water flow. And of course in the extreme case where a 100% RAS is

employed, the production is based upon rates of evaporation which

means that several 100 fold increases in production per unit of water can

be achieved compared to flow through production.

Fully recirculating systems, because of their extremely low makeup

water requirements, can readily capture from 96% (Heinen et al. 1996) to

100% of the waste produced, depending upon the percentage of make-up

water passed through the system. In comparison, a well operated serial

reuse raceway system can typically achieve overall waste capture

efficiencies of only 25-50% (Mudrak, 1981 ). Additionally, by using

"Cornell-typc" dual-drain circular culture tanks and either bead filters or

microscreen filters, recirculating systems can produce a much smaller

and more concentrated waste stream, which can be treated more

1 0 Chapter 1 Introduction

economically and efficiently (Timmons et al. 1998; Summerfelt et al.

2000A; 2000B Summerfelt, 1996; 1999). Thus, partial-reuse and fully

rccirculating systems offer key advantages over traditional fish culture in

serial-reuse raceway systems, including 80-100% reduced water

resource requirements (respectively) and an overall waste capture

efficiency of 80-100% (respectively). Also, solids removal from dual

drain circular tanks is so rapid and effective that partial-reuse and fully

recirculating systems can treat and return water to the culture tanks with

<2.0 mg!L TSS (Summerfelt et al. 2000A; 2000B). Coldwater

rccirculating technology has now advanced to the point that these

systems can provide a controlled environment with optimized water

temperature, quality, and culture tank velocities (Summerfelt, 1996;

Summcrfclt et al. 2000A; Summerfelt et al. 200 I).

1.4 WORLD MARKET NEEDS

Aquaculture must continue to increase its capacity as the wild catch

is predicted to only marginally increase by 1.5% yearly over the next 1 5

years (Delgado et al. 2002), which will not supply the needed demand. In

addition, the public is increasingly demanding production of seafood to

be from sustainable methods that are eco-friendly. Our basic thesis is that

R.AS are the key technology that will allow the world aquaculture

community to supply tbe world per capita needs in seafood over the next

decade and to do so in an environmentally friendly manner (see earlier

Table 1.2 for RAS use of water and land compared to other competing

forms of aquaculture).

RAS produced supply should not be thought of as competing with

the wild catch, but of complimenting the ability of the oceans to supply

some sustainable level of production that must be supplemented by

aquaculture produced product. Trus is not a contest between traditional

fishing methods and new technology. An additional 77 billion kg of

supply is needed by the year 2020 to maintain current world per capita

consumption levels. We predict that 44 billion kg of this demand will be

met through aquaculture.

The recognized deficit in fishery supplied (wild catch) product has

led to concerted efforts to better manage natural fisheries. For the case of

United States and likely appropriate to other countries, Macinko and

Bromlcy (2002) argue that policy makers must recognize that the

American (or country of interest) public owns the nation's fisheries. Poor

management of fishery resources is at the heart of the fishery crisis. The

World Market Needs 1 1

U S (or country o f interest) should manage its fisheries as it manages its

other natural resources

Macinko and Bromley acknowledge that managing through an

individual fishing quota approach, IFQ; will only ameliorate the race for

the 'last' fish. Even with improved management of the ocean resources,

to maintain similar world per capita consumption levels as in 2005 will

require an increase in production from aquaculture of 44 million ton' by

the year 2020 (assumes an increase per year of 1.5% in the capture

fisheries and a 2.8% increase in aquaculturc, Delgado et al., 2002).

1.5 MARKET DYNAMICS

With the fishing industry suffering from dramatic reductions in the

supply of wild caught traditional species, alternatives to wild catches

now have a competitive advantage in the marketplace. Where

aquaculture was once viewed as the wave of the future, it is now

generally accepted as a significant source of product. In 2009, more than

half of all the seafood consumed around the world was a product of

aquaculture. ,

The leading forms of dietary protein consumed in the US in 2007

ranked as follows (all expressed on a per capita basis; USDA, 2009; see

http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FoodConsumption/FoodAvailSpreadsheet

s.htm#mtpcc):

• (^) Beef 65.1 lb (29.6 kg)
• (^) Chicken 85.4 lb (38.8 kg)
• (^) Pork 50.3 lb (22.9 kg)
• (^) Turkey 17.5 (8.0 kg)
• (^) Seafood 16.3 lb (7.4 kg)

Inconsistent supply and subsequent higher retail costs has kept US

consumption of seafood steady during the 1990's at around 14 to 1 5

pounds (7 kg) per capita. However, since 2000, there has been a slow but

steady increase^ from^ 15.2^ lb (6.9 kg)^ in 2000^ to^ 16.53^ lb (7.5 kg) in

2006, which represents over 400 million lb (1 80,000 ton) increase in

product supply. The wild catch is simply not keeping up with the demand

by the consumers, and as a result, the supply of aquacultured seafood

products has risen to meet the demand. Due to the highly favorable

opinion of seafood (most Americans �iew seafood as being healthy); it is

1 This book wi 11 use ton as I ,000 kg