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Memory 1997 - sec08, Notas de estudo de Automação

Complete Coverage of DRAM, SRAM, EPROM, and Flash Memory ICs,of © 1997 Integrated Circuit Engineering Corporation

Tipologia: Notas de estudo

2011

Compartilhado em 14/06/2011

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OVERVIEW
An SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) is designed to fill two needs: to provide a direct
interface with the CPU at speeds not attainable by DRAMs and to replace DRAMs in systems
that require very low power consumption. In the first role, the SRAM serves as cache memory,
interfacing between DRAMs and the CPU. Figure 8-1 shows a typical PC microprocessor
memory configuration.
The second driving force for SRAM technology is low power applications. In this case, SRAMs
are used in most portable equipment because the DRAM refresh current is several orders of mag-
nitude more than the low-power SRAM standby current. For low-power SRAMs, access time is
comparable to a standard DRAM. Figure 8-2 shows a partial list of Hitachi’s SRAM products and
gives an overview of some of the applications where these SRAMs are found.
HOW THE DEVICE WORKS
The SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to the internal circuitry by two access
transistors (Figure 8-3). When the cell is not addressed, the two access transistors are closed and
the data is kept to a stable state, latched within the flip-flop.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION
8-1
8SRAM TECHNOLOGY
Microprocessor
SRAM DRAM
Internal Cache (L1)
8KB to 32KB
External Cache (L2)
64KB to 1MB Main Memory
4MB to 512MB
Source: Micron/ICE, "Memory 1997"
20812
Figure 8-1. Typical PC Microprocessor Memory Configuration
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa
pfd
pfe
pff
pf12
pf13
pf14
pf15
pf16
pf17
pf18

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OVERVIEW

An SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) is designed to fill two needs: to provide a direct

interface with the CPU at speeds not attainable by DRAMs and to replace DRAMs in systems

that require very low power consumption. In the first role, the SRAM serves as cache memory,

interfacing between DRAMs and the CPU. Figure 8-1 shows a typical PC microprocessor

memory configuration.

The second driving force for SRAM technology is low power applications. In this case, SRAMs

are used in most portable equipment because the DRAM refresh current is several orders of mag-

nitude more than the low-power SRAM standby current. For low-power SRAMs, access time is

comparable to a standard DRAM. Figure 8-2 shows a partial list of Hitachi’s SRAM products and

gives an overview of some of the applications where these SRAMs are found.

HOW THE DEVICE WORKS

The SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to the internal circuitry by two access

transistors (Figure 8-3). When the cell is not addressed, the two access transistors are closed and

the data is kept to a stable state, latched within the flip-flop.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

Microprocessor

SRAM DRAM

Internal Cache (L1) 8KB to 32KB

External Cache (L2) 64KB to 1MB

Main Memory 4MB to 512MB

Source: Micron/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20812

Figure 8-1. Typical PC Microprocessor Memory Configuration

The flip-flop needs the power supply to keep the information. The data in an SRAM cell is volatile

(i.e., the data is lost when the power is removed). However, the data does not “leak away” like in

a DRAM, so the SRAM does not require a refresh cycle.

8-2^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Source: Hitachi/ICE, "Memory 1997" 22607

Access Time (ns)

100

50

20

10

5

2 64Kbit 256Kbit 1Mbit 4Mbit Device Density

64Kbit Low-Power SRAM 256Kbit Low-Power SRAM

32K x 8 Asynchronous SRAM

1Mbit Low-Power SRAM

128K x 8/64K x 16 Asynchronous SRAM

32K x 32/32K x 36 Asynchronous SRAM

512K x 8 Low-Power SRAM

1M x 4/512K x 8 Asynchronous SRAM

32K x 36 LVCMOS SSRAM (^) LVCMOS/HSTL SSRAM256K x 18/128K x 36 Non PC Cache Memory

PC Cache Memory

Mass Storage Buffer Memory

Industrial/Peripheral Buffer Memory

Figure 8-2. Hitachi’s SRAM Products

Figure 8-3. SRAM Cell

Word Line

To Sense Amplifier Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 20019

B B

Data Retention

To work properly and to ensure that the data in the elementary cell will not be altered, the SRAM

must be supplied by a VCC (power supply) that will not fluctuate beyond plus or minus five or

ten percent of the VCC.

If the elementary cell is not disturbed, a lower voltage (2 volts) is acceptable to ensure that the cell

will correctly keep the data. In that case, the SRAM is set to a retention mode where the power

supply is lowered, and the part is no longer accessible. Figure 8-5 shows an example of how the

VCC power supply must be lowered to ensure good data retention.

MEMORY CELL

Different types of SRAM cells are based on the type of load used in the elementary inverter of the

flip-flop cell. There are currently three types of SRAM memory cells :

  • The 4T cell (four NMOS transistors plus two poly load resistors)
  • The 6T cell (six transistors—four NMOS transistors plus two PMOS transistors)
  • The TFT cell (four NMOS transistors plus two loads called TFTs)

4 Transistor (4T ) Cell

The most common SRAM cell consists of four NMOS transistors plus two poly-load resistors

(Figure 8-6). This design is called the 4T cell SRAM. Two NMOS transistors are pass-transistors.

These transistors have their gates tied to the word line and connect the cell to the columns. The

two other NMOS transistors are the pull-downs of the flip-flop inverters. The loads of the invert-

ers consist of a very high polysilicon resistor.

This design is the most popular because of its size compared to a 6T cell. The cell needs room only

for the four NMOS transistors. The poly loads are stacked above these transistors. Although the

4T SRAM cell may be smaller than the 6T cell, it is still about four times as large as the cell of a

comparable generation DRAM cell.

8-4^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Source: Cypress/ICE, "Memory 1997" 22460

tCDR tR

3.0V VDR ≥ 2V 3.0V

Data Retention Mode

CE

V CC

Figure 8-5. SRAM Data Retention Waveform

The complexity of the 4T cell is to make a resistor load high enough (in the range of giga-ohms) to

minimize the current. However, this resistor must not be too high to guarantee good functionality.

Despite its size advantage, the 4T cells have several limitations. These include the fact that each cell

has current flowing in one resistor (i.e., the SRAM has a high standby current), the cell is sensitive

to noise and soft error because the resistance is so high, and the cell is not as fast as the 6T cell.

6 Transistor (6T) Cell

A different cell design that eliminates the above limitations is the use of a CMOS flip-flop. In this

case, the load is replaced by a PMOS transistor. This SRAM cell is composed of six transistors, one

NMOS transistor and one PMOS transistor for each inverter, plus two NMOS transistors con-

nected to the row line. This configuration is called a 6T Cell. Figure 8-7 shows this structure. This

cell offers better electrical performances (speed, noise immunity, standby current) than a 4T struc-

ture. The main disadvantage of this cell is its large size.

Until recently, the 6T cell architecture was reserved for niche markets such as military or space that

needed high immunity components. However, with commercial applications needing faster

SRAMs, the 6T cell may be implemented into more widespread applications in the future.

Much process development has been done to reduce the size of the 6T cell. At the 1997 ISSCC con-

ference, all papers presented on fast SRAMs described the 6T cell architecture (Figure 8-8).

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

+V

W

B B

To Sense Amps Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 18470A

Figure 8-6. SRAM 4T (Four-Transistor) Cell

Figure 8-9 shows the TFT characteristics. In actual use, the effective resistance would range from

about 11 x 10^13 Ω to 5 x 10 9 Ω. Figure 8-10 shows the TFT cell schematic.

Figure 8-11 displays a cross-sectional drawing of the TFT cell. TFT technology requires the depo-

sition of two more films and at least three more photolithography steps.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

Source: Hitachi/ICE, Memory 1997" 19953

Tox = 25nm Tpoly = 38nm L/W = 1.6/0.6μm

Vd = –4V

Vg

Gate Voltage, Vg (V)

Drain Current, Id

(A)

Figure 8-9. TFT (Thin Film Transistor) Characteristics

Figure 8-10. SRAM TFT Cell

BL BL

Poly-Si PMOS

Word Line

Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 19954

Development of TFT technology continues to be performed. At the 1996 IEDM conference, two

papers were presented on the subject. There are not as many TFT SRAMs as might be expected,

due to a more complex technology compared to the 4T cell technology and, perhaps, due to poor

TFT electrical characteristics compared to a PMOS transistor.

Cell Size and Die Size

Figure 8-12 shows characteristics of SRAM parts analyzed in ICE’s laboratory in 1996 and 1997.

The majority of the listed suppliers use the conventional 4T cell architecture. Only two chips were

made with a TFT cell architecture, and the only 6T cell architecture SRAM analyzed was the

Pentium Pro L2 Cache SRAM from Intel.

As indicated by the date code of the part and its technology, this study is a presentation of what

is the state-of-the-art today. ICE expects to see more 6T cell architectures in the future.

Figure 8-13 shows the trends of SRAM cell size. Like most other memory products, there is

a tradeoff between the performance of the cell and its process complexity. Most manufactur-

ers believe that the manufacturing process for the TFT-cell SRAM is too difficult, regardless

of its performance advantages.

8-8^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

(^)

N+ N+ N+ N+ N+ Diffusion Region (GND Line)

Driver Transistor

Isolation

TiSi2 (^) TransistorAccess 1st Poly-Si (Gate Electrode of Bulk Transistor)

2nd Direct Contact

Contact (W-Plug)

4th Poly-Si (Internal Connection) 3rd Poly-Si (Gate Electrode2nd Poly-Si (Channel of TFT) of TFT)

1st Metal (BIT Line)

Source: IEDM 91/ICE, "Memory 1997" 18749

Figure 8-11. Cross Section of a TFT SRAM Cell

CONFIGURATION

As shown in Figure 8-17, SRAMs can be classified in four main categories. The segments are asyn-

chronous SRAMs, synchronous SRAMs, special SRAMs, and non-volatile SRAMs. These are

highlighted below.

Asynchronous SRAMs

Figure 8-18 shows a typical functional block diagram and a typical pin configuration of an asyn-

chronous SRAM. The memory is managed by three control signals. One signal is the chip select

(CS) or chip enable (CE) that selects or de-selects the chip. When the chip is de-selected, the part

is in stand-by mode (minimum current consumption) and the outputs are in a high impedance

state. Another signal is the output enable (OE) that controls the outputs (valid data or high

impedance). Thirdly, is the write enable (WE) that selects read or write cycles.

Synchronous SRAMs

As computer system clocks increased, the demand for very fast SRAMs necessitated variations on

the standard asynchronous fast SRAM. The result was the synchronous SRAM (SSRAM).

8-10^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Technology

Cell Size (

μm

1 Micron 0.8 Micron 0.5-0.6 Micron 0.35 Micron Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 19989A

0.25 Micron

6T Cell

4T (and TFT) Cell

Figure 8-13. Trend of SRAM Cell Sizes

Synchronous SRAMs have their read or write cycles synchronized with the microprocessor clock

and therefore can be used in very high-speed applications. An important application for syn-

chronous SRAMs is cache SRAM used in Pentium- or PowerPC-based PCs and workstations.

Figure 8-19 shows the trends of PC cache SRAM.

Figure 8-20 shows a typical SSRAM block diagram as well as a typical pin configuration. SSRAMs

typically have a 32 bit output configuration while standard SRAMs have typically a 8 bit output

configuration. The RAM array, which forms the heart of an asynchronous SRAM, is also found in

SSRAM. Since the operations take place on the rising edge of the clock signal, it is unecessary to

hold the address and write data state throughout the entire cycle.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

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@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

1N

6P 4N

5P 3N

BIT 2N BIT

BIT WORD

BIT

GND

POLYCIDE

SIDEWALL SPACER

N+

N+ P+

1

2

3

4

5

6

Source: ICE, “Memory 1997” 22172

5.2μm

6.35μm

Figure 8-14. 6T SRAM Cell

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@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

WORD

BIT 1 2 BIT 3 4

R1 R

Source: ICE, “Memory 1997” 22171

2.5μm

4.5μm

WORD

1

2 3

4 R

R GND

VCC

Figure 8-15. 4T SRAM Cell

Flow-Through SRAM

Flow-through operation is accomplished by gating the output registers with the output clock. This

dual clock operation provides control of the data out window.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

SRAMs

Asynchronous

  • Low Speed
  • Medium Speed
  • High Speed

Synchronous

  • Interleaved Versus Linear Burst
  • Flow-Through Versus Pipelined
  • ZBT (Zero Bus Turnaround)
  • Late-Write
  • DDR (Double Data Rate)
  • Dual Port
    • Multiport
    • FIFO
    • Cache Tag

Special

  • Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM)
  • Battery-Back SRAM (BRAM)

Non-Volatile

Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 22454

Figure 8-17. Overview of SRAM Types

Figure 8-18. Typical SRAM

Input Buffer

512 x 512 Array

Column PowerDown Decoder

Row Decoder Sense Amps

A 10

I/O 0 I/O 1 I/O 2 I/O 3 I/O 4 I/O 5 I/O 6 I/O 7

AA 9 A^87 AA 6 A^54 AA 3 2

A^14 A^13 A^12 A^11 A^1 A^0 Logic Block Diagram Pin Configuration

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

V A CS WE A A A A OE A CS I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

(^32) DD 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17

N.C. A A A A A A A A A A A I/O I/O I/O VSS

Source: Cypress/ICE, "Memory 1997" 22458

WE^ CE OE

8-14^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Non Cache

With Cache Standard SRAM

16-bit CPU

32-bit CPU

64-bit CPU

Source: Mitsubishi/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20429A

Sync. Burst SRAM

Year

Figure 8-19. Trend of PC Cache SRAM

Figure 8-20. Typical SSRAM

(^12) (^34) (^56) (^78) (^910) (^1112) (^1314) (^1516) (^1718) (^1920) (^2122) (^2324) (^2526) (^2728) (^2930)

(^8079) (^7877) (^7675) (^7473) (^7271) (^7069) (^6867) (^6665) (^6463) (^6261) (^6059) (^5857) (^5655) (^5453) (^5251)

I/O 17N.C. VI/O 18 VDDSSQQ I/O 19I/O 20 I/O 21I/O 22 VVSSQ I/O 23DDQ I/O 24N.C. VN.C.DD I/O 25VSS VI/O 26 VDDSSQQ I/O 27I/O 28 I/O 29I/O 30 VVSSQ I/O 31DDQ I/O 32N.C.

N.C.I/O 16 I/O 15VDDQ VI/O 14SSQ I/O 13I/O 12 I/O 11V VSSDDQQ I/O 10I/O 9 VN.C.SS VZZDD I/O 8I/O 7 VVDDQ I/O 6SSQ I/O 5I/O 4 I/O 3VSSQ VI/O 2DDQ I/O 1N.C.

A6A7/CE1CE2/BW4/BW3/BW2/BW1/CE3VDDVSSCLK/GW/BWE/OE/ADSC/ADSP/ADVA8A 10099989796959493929190898887868584838281

3132333435363738394041424344454647484950 /LBOA5A4A3A2A1A0N.C.N.C.VSSVDDN.C.N.C.A10A11A12A13A14N.C.N.C.

A0-A ADVCLK ADSC ADSP

BW

BW

BW

BW CE OE

DQ0-DQ

CE2CE

15 15 13

8

8

8

(^88)

8

8

8

32

32

32

32

32

15

Input DataRegisters BuffersOutput

SenseAmps

32K x 32Memory Array

Byte 4Write Driver Byte 3Write Driver Byte 2Write Driver Byte 1Write Driver

Byte 4Write Register Byte 3Write Register Byte 2Write Register Byte 1Write Register EnableChip Register

RegistersAddress

CounterBinary

A0 A A0+ Q1A1+

D0 D1Q Load

Source: Hitachi/ICE, "Memory 1997" 22457

Logic Block Diagram Pin Configuration

8-16^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Figure 8-23. Pipelined Versus Non-Pipelined Timings

A A+1 A+2 A+

Data A Data A+1 Data A+2 Data A+

Clock 1 Clock

Address

Data

Clock 2 Clock3 Clock 4 Clock 5

A

A+1 A+2 A+

Clock 1 Clock

Address

Data

Clock 2 Clock3 Clock 4 Clock 5

Data A Data A+1 (^) Data A+2 Data A+

A 4-word burst read from pipelined SRAMs

A 4-word burst read from synchronous SRAMs Source: Electronic Design/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20863

PIPELINED

FLOW-THROUGH

Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 22608

Clock Control

Register Dout

Control

Dout

Figure 8-22. Pipelined Versus Flow-Through Architectures

ZBT (Zero Bus Turn-around)

The ZBT (zero bus turn-around) is designed to eliminate dead cycles when turning the bus around

between read and writes and reads. Figure 8-25 shows a bandwidth comparison between the

PBSRAM (pipelined burst SRAM), the late-write SRAM and the ZBT SRAM architectures.

DDR (Double Data Rate) SRAMs

DDR SRAMs boost the performance of the device by transferring data on both edges of the clock.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

Figure 8-25. SSRAM Bandwidth Comparison

Source: ICE, "Memory 1997" 22609

SRAM (^) ConfigurationDevice Clock Speed(MHz) UtilizationBus (Mbytes/sec)Bandwidth PBSRAM Late-Write SRAM ZBT SRAM

128K x 36 bits 128K x 36 bits

128K x 36 bits

Bus Frequency Speed (ns) Banks

Performance Read Write

Performance Read Write

Performance Read Write

Cycle Time

Cycle Time

Access Time 50 60

66

75 83 100 125

3.3V 32K x 8 32K x 32 Pipelined 32K x 32 Non-Pipelined

Source: Micron/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20864

Figure 8-24. SRAM Performance Comparison

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-

VCC

Address GND Decoder

I/O Control

Match (Open Drain)

65,356-Bit Memory Array

Compa- ControlLogic rator

A 0

I/O0-

A 12

CS

WE

RESET

OE

Source: IDT/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20865

Figure 8-27. Block Diagram of Cache-Tag SRAM

Figure 8-28. FIFO Memory Solution for File Servers

Microprocessor

Memory

FIFO

System Bus Disk Drive

LAN

Source: IDT/ICE, "Memory 1997" 18804

Multiport SRAMs

Multiport fast SRAMs (usually two port, but sometimes four port) are specially designed chips

using fast SRAM memory cells, but with special on-chip circuitry that allows multiple ports

(paths) to access the same data at the same time.

8-20^ INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

Write Address Counter

Write Data Register Write Latch

Write Pulse Gen

Dual Port RAM Array 4096 Words x 18 Bits

Flag Logic

FF

FF

Full

Empty

Read Data Register

Read Data

Write Data

Read Address Counter

Read Enable Read Clock

Write Clock Write Enable

Source: Paradigm/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20866

Figure 8-29. Synchronous FIFO Block Diagram

Write Counter

Dual Port RAM Array 4096 Words x 18 Bits Flag Logic

Full

Empty

Read Data

Write Data Inhibit

Read Clock Read Counter Inhibit

Write Clock

Source: Paradigm/ICE, "Memory 1997" 20867

Figure 8-30. Asynchronous FIFO Block Diagram